Geography of Peru
|
Continent
| South America
|
---|
Coordinates
| 10°00′S
76°00′W
/
10.000°S 76.000°W
/
-10.000; -76.000
|
---|
Area
| Ranked 20th
|
---|
? Total
| 1,285,215.6 km
2
(496,224.5 sq mi)
|
---|
? Land
| 99.6%
|
---|
? Water
| 0.4%
|
---|
Coastline
| 3,080 km (1,910 mi)
|
---|
Borders
| Total land borders
:
7,461 km
Bolivia
: 1,075 km
Brazil
: 2,995 km
Chile
: 171 km
Colombia
: 1,800 km
Ecuador
: 1,420 km
|
---|
Highest point
| Huascaran Sur
,
6,768 metres (22,205 ft)
|
---|
Lowest point
| Bayovar Depression
,
?34 metres (?112 ft)
|
---|
Largest lake
| Lake Titicaca
|
---|
Exclusive economic zone
| 906,454 km
2
(349,984 sq mi)
|
---|
Peru
is a country on the central western coast of
South America
facing the
Pacific Ocean
. It lies wholly in the
Southern Hemisphere
, its northernmost extreme reaching to 1.8 minutes of latitude or about 3.3 kilometres (2.1 mi) south of the
equator
. Peru shares land borders with
Ecuador
,
Colombia
,
Brazil
,
Bolivia
, and
Chile
, with its longest land border shared with Brazil.
Natural Regions
[
edit
]
Despite the great diversity of Peruvian territory, the Spanish divided it into three main regions for political rather than geographical reasons: the Coast, adjacent to the
Pacific Ocean
; the Highlands, located in the
Andean mountains
; and the
Amazon Jungle
. This division, although with its evident limitations, lasted until 1941, when the third General Assembly of the
Pan American Institute of Geography and History
approved the creation of eight natural regions, proposed by the geographer Javier Pulgar Vidal, to establish a physiographic map more adjusted to the biogeographical reality of the territory. Thus conceived, the Peruvian map comprises the following regions:
- La Chala or Coast
:
[1]
This region is found in the western lands, which are relatively flat and extend along the coast from sea level up to 500 meters in elevation. In this region,
carob trees
,
palo verde
,
salt grass
,
mangroves
,
reeds
, and
wild canes
grow along the rivers, and
amancaes
,
wild tomatoes
,
mito
,
tara
, and others grow on the hillsides. The coastal fauna includes
sea lions
,
anchovies
, and seabirds.
- La Yunga
:
[2]
A region of fertile valleys and ravines where
lucumo
,
cherimoya
,
guava
,
avocado
, citrus fruits, and
sugar cane
are cultivated, along with picturesque river canyons. Between 500 and 2300 meters on the western slope, it is known as Maritime Yunga, and between 1000 and 2300 meters on the eastern slope, it is called Fluvial Yunga. Fluvial Yunga has a warm climate with seasonal rains, while a desert climate predominates in Maritime Yunga. The flora includes
molle
,
white agave
,
pitahaya
, and
chuna
, and the fauna includes birds such as the
chaucato
and
taurigaray
.
- Quechua
: A region of temperate lands that extend across both Andean slopes between 2300 and 3500 meters in altitude. The landscape alternates between valleys and watersheds feeding into the same basin, with limited summer rains. The flora includes
alder
,
lambran or rambash
,
gongapa
, and
arracacha
, and
maize
,
squash
,
passion fruit
,
papaya
,
wheat
, and
peach
are cultivated. The fauna includes birds such as the
gray thrush or chihuanco
.
- Suni or Jalca
: Lands with a cold and dry climate, with abundant summer rains, located between 3500 and 4100 meters, characterized by glacial valleys and slightly undulating bottoms. The landscape is covered by grasses and shrubs like
taya-taya
,
quishuar
, and
cantuta
(sacred flower of
the Incas
). Despite the climate,
quinoa
,
canigua
,
broad beans
,
olluco
, and other crops thrive. The fauna includes the
black thrush
and
guinea pig
.
- La Puna
: Covers the high plateaus and Andean cliffs between 4100 and 4800 meters, where a cold climate prevails. During the day, temperatures are positive, but they drop below 0 °C at night. The typical vegetation includes
cacti
and, in lakes and swampy areas,
totoras
. The most common crops are
barley
,
potato
, and
maca
. The characteristic fauna includes
llama
,
alpaca
,
vicuna
,
guanaco
,
condor
,
huallata
,
flamingo
,
duck
, and other aquatic birds.
- La Janca
: Corresponds to the high frozen peaks, encompassing the domains of the
condor
, where the climate is glacial and vegetation is very scarce, reduced almost to
yareta or yarita
.
- La Rupa Rupa or High Jungle
: Forested foothills located between 400 and 1000 meters on the eastern slope of
the Andes
, characterized by narrow, elongated valleys and river canyons or pongos. The warm, humid, and rainy climate favors a diverse tropical flora and fauna, including the
tapir
,
peccary
, and
jaguar
.
- Omagua, The Amazon or Low Jungle
: A jungle plain that extends between 80 and 400 meters on the eastern Andean slope, through which the rivers of the
Amazon
basin flow, forming meanders, swamps, and lagoons. The flora includes trees like
chonta
,
cedar
,
palms
,
shapaja
, and shebo, and plants like
orchids
. The fauna includes
capybara
,
giant armadillo
,
otter
, and
red deer
, birds like
toucan
,
hoatzin
,
jabiru
, and
macaw
, as well as fish like
paiche
and other aquatic animals like the
manatee
and
pipa toad
.
Statistics
[
edit
]
Peru has a total land area of 1,285,220 km
2
[3]
and a total water area of 5,000 km
2
. In terms of maritime area, the country claims a continental shelf of 200
nmi
(370.4 km; 230.2 mi), a territorial sea of 200 nmi (370.4 km; 230.2 mi) and an
Exclusive economic zone
of 857,000 km
2
(331,000 sq mi).
[4]
Only 3% of Peru's land is arable, with 0.5% being suitable for permanent crops. Permanent pastureland accounts for 21% of Peru's land use, and forests and woodland accounting for 66% of the landscape. Approximately 9.5% (1993 est.) of Peruvian land is attributed to population centers, coastal regions, and other space.
Natural hazards that Peru experiences include earthquakes,
tsunamis
, flooding, landslides, and mild volcanic activity. The geographic positioning of Peru adjacent to the adjoining Nazca and South American tectonic plates - converging in the Atacama trench off the Pacific coast - serves as the catalyst to many of Peru's natural hazards.
Peru's environmental issues include deforestation (some the result of
illegal logging
); overgrazing of the slopes of the coast and sierra leading to soil erosion; desertification; air pollution in Lima; pollution of rivers and coastal waters from municipal and mining wastes.
Peru is a party to the following international environmental agreements:
Antarctic Treaty
,
Antarctic-Environmental Protocol
,
Biodiversity
,
Climate Change
,
Desertification
,
Endangered Species
,
Hazardous Wastes
,
Nuclear Test Ban
,
Ozone Layer Protection
,
Ship Pollution
,
Tropical Timber 83
,
Tropical Timber 94
,
Wetlands
,
Whaling
. Furthermore, the country has signed, but not ratified, the Climate Change-
Kyoto Protocol
.
Peru shares control of
Lake Titicaca
, world's highest navigable lake, with Bolivia.
[5]
Urbanization
[
edit
]
The most populated city in the country is
Lima
, the capital of Peru. Lima's metropolitan area has a population of over 10 million. The country's second and third largest cities,
Callao
and
Arequipa
, have around 1.3 and 1.2 million people, respectively. Peru's developed urban cities are found in coastal regions and to the north. There are 32.1 million people who live in Peru.
[6]
The percentage of urbanization in Peru is 79.2%, and holds a yearly increase of 1.57%.
[7]
Lima forms part of the
largest cities in the Americas
, and holds 31.7% of the country's population.
[8]
The dense concentration of the population size of Peru is 25 people/km
2
or 57/mi
2
.
[9]
Lima is a pull factor that draws millions of Peruvians from the suburbs to the capital. This urban inland migration is the result of sprawling around Lima. These sprawling places are known as “Pueblos Jovenes”. The young towns and Lima make up the metropolitan area that extend 200 km (125 mi).
[10]
The urban growth brings issues to the metropolitan area and the environment. Lima is the most polluted city in Latin America.
[11]
The overcrowding and growth of urbanization has caused Peruvians to use its green spaces for garbage disposal. This leads to the pollution of the river
Rimac
that supplies water to the metropolitan area.
[12]
[13]
The rise of urbanization forgets the historic sites, ruins or “
huacas
”, which are being replaced for buildings, roads, etc. Lima is home of 400 sites of 46,000 in the country, the country itself only preserves 1%.
[14]
Approximately 1.3 million
Venezuelans
have emigrated to Peru in search of residency.
[15]
This
international migration
is caused by various social, environmental and economic crises in their home country. This push factor migration has brought to Peru sustenance problems like instability and food shortage.
[16]
Climate
[
edit
]
The combination of tropical latitude, mountain ranges, topography variations and two ocean currents (
Humboldt
and
El Nino
) gives Peru a large diversity of climates. Peru has a tropical climate with a wet and dry season.
[17]
Amazon Basin or Low Amazon
[
edit
]
The eastern portions of Peru include the
Amazon Basin
or
selva baja
, a region that is larger in the north than in the south. Representing roughly 60% of Peru's national territory, this area includes the
Amazon
,
Maranon
,
Huallaga
and
Ucayali
Rivers.
[18]
Almost 60% of the country's area is located within this region,
[19]
(700,000 km
2
or 270,000 sq mi) giving Peru the fourth largest area of tropical forest in the world after Brazil,
Congo
and
Indonesia
.
[20]
Andean mountain ranges
[
edit
]
The Andes shelter the very largest variety of climates in the country. The climate is semi-arid in the valleys and moist in higher elevations and towards the eastern flanks. Rainfall varies from 200 to 1,500 mm (7.9 to 59.1 in) per year. The monsoonal period starts in October and ends in April. The rainiest months are January through March where travel can be sometimes affected.
The western slopes are arid to semi-arid and receive rainfall only between January and March. Below the 2,500 m (8,202 ft) mark, the temperatures vary between 5 and 15 °C (41 and 59 °F) in the night versus 18 to 25 °C (64.4 to 77.0 °F) in the day.
Between 2,500 and 3,500 meters (8,202 and 11,483 ft), the temperatures vary from 0 to 12 °C (32.0 to 53.6 °F) in the night and from 15 to 25 °C (59 to 77 °F) during the day. At higher elevations from 3,500 to 4,500 meters (11,483 to 14,764 ft), the
Puna
ecoregion, the temperature varies from ?10 to 8 °C (14.0 to 46.4 °F) during the night versus 15 °C (59 °F) during the day.
The northernmost regions of the Andes around
Cajamarca
and
Piura
regions have
Paramo
climates.
Coast
[
edit
]
The Peruvian coast is a microclimatic region. The region is affected by the cold
Humboldt Current
, the
El Nino Southern Oscillation
,
tropical
latitude
, and the
Andes
mountain range.
The central and southern coast consists mainly of a subtropical desert climate composed of sandy or rocky shores and inland cutting valleys. Days alternate between overcast skies with occasional fog in the winter and sunny skies with occasional haze in the summer, with the only precipitation being an occasional light-to-moderate
drizzle
that is known locally as
garua
. These regions are usually characterized by mildly cold lows (14 °C or 57.2 °F) and also mild highs (29 °C or 84 °F). Temperatures rarely fall below 12 °C (53.6 °F) and do not go over 29 °C (84 °F). An exception is the southern coast, where it does get a bit warmer and drier for most of the year during daytime, and where it can also get much colder during winter nights (8 to 9 °C or 46.4 to 48.2 °F).
The northern coast, on the contrary, has a curious tropical-dry climate, generally referred to as
tropical savanna
. This region is a lot warmer and can be unbearable during summer months, where rainfall is also present. The region differs from the southern coast by the presence of shrubs, equatorial dry forests (
Tumbes?Piura dry forests
ecoregion),
mangrove
forests, tropical valleys near rivers such as the
Chira
and the
Tumbes
. The average temperature is 25 °C (77 °F).
Central and southern coast
[
edit
]
The central and southern coast have a
subtropical
desert climate, despite this region being located in the tropics. The
Humboldt Current
, serving as one cause of climatic differentiation, is 7 to 8 °C (13 to 14 °F) colder than normal tropical seas at 14 to 19 °C (57 to 66 °F), thus preventing high tropical temperatures from appearing. Additionally, due to the height of the Andes cordillera, there is no passage of hot clouds from the Amazon to the coast, the climate is cooler than that of similar tropical latitudes. This can create a great deal of humidity and fog during winter months.
Moreover, the Andes mountains are very close to the coast, a geographic factor that prevents
cumulus
or
cumulonimbus
clouds from appearing. Therefore, a shade effect is created, causing very low annual rainfall in this region.
[21]
Rainfall averages 5 mm (0.2 in) per year near the Chilean border to 200 mm (7.9 in) per year on the northern coast and nearer the Andes.
The central coast is composed of regions including
La Libertad
,
Ancash
and
Lima
, which have a spring-like climate for most of the year. Foggy and sunny days intermingle around the humid sand dunes during most of the year.
Most summers (February?April) have pleasant temperatures ranging from 19 to 21 °C (66 to 70 °F) during the night to about 28 to 29 °C (82 to 84 °F) during the daytime. Winters (August?October) are very humid, and range from 12 to 15 °C (54 to 59 °F) during the nights to around the 17 to 18 °C (63 to 64 °F) during the day. The spring (November?January) and autumn (May?July) months have a pleasant climate that ranges from 23 °C (73 °F) during the day to around 17 °C (63 °F) during the night. Moving inland into the
Yunga
valleys, the climate tends to be ~3 °C (5.4 °F) drier and warmer during any given month.
The
southern coast
, composed of the
Ica
,
Arequipa
,
Moquegua
and
Tacna
regions, has a drier and warmer climate during the day for all seasons, although colder in winter. There are regions famous for their sand dunes and impressive deserts that are, in part, caused by the drier and hotter climate. Temperatures in this region can reach up to 36 °C (97 °F) in the
Nazca
region while inland regions can fall to 8 or 9 °C (46 or 48 °F) during the winter months. During the day, temperatures rarely go below the 22 or 23 °C (72 or 73 °F) for all months of the year. This purports the idea that the southern coast has a more desert-like climate, although daily temperature variations exist as they do in other regions within tropical latitudes. Clear skies are often present in desert areas and, although less common, near the coastal cliffs as well, which are home to a variety of fish and marine mammals.
Northern coast
[
edit
]
The northern coast consists of the eastern region of
Lambayeque
, the
Piura Region
and the
Tumbes Region
.
They are characterized by having different climate and geography from the rest of the coast. Right between the 3-hour drive on the
Sechura desert
, which is located north of the
Lambayeque Region
and south of the
Piura Region
, is the evidence of climate change from the common subtropical desert found on the south to visible tropicalization effects of the tropical dry climate or
tropical savanna
. Examples of this are the tropical dry forests that begin to appear. They are composed of shrubs, thorny trees, carob trees, faique trees, guayacan
[
check spelling
]
trees, hualtaco trees, palo santo trees, ceibo trees and on the coast
mangrove forests. It is also a biodiverse area where typical wildlife can be observed such as crocodiles, reptiles, iguanas, boas, pava aliblanca, anteater, bear, sloth (bearh) and many more.
This climatic change is caused by the presence of the warm
El Nino Current
during the summer months (December to April), the eventual
El Nino
Phenomenon and the passing of Amazon Jungles clouds due to mountain openings and lower altitudes of the Andes Chain. These are the causes for a climate change in a short two- or three-hour trajectory that is visible between the
Lambayeque Region
and the
Sechura Province
, where not only geography changes but a temperature rise of 6 °C (10.8 °F) or more depending on the month. It is directly off the shores of the
Sechura Region
where the cold Humboldt current and warm El Nino current meet, at about 5° to 6° south of the equator. From this point, warm temperatures are most common, and there are no true winters. Average temperatures range between 24.5?27 °C (76.1?80.6 °F).
Summer (December through March) is more humid and very hot, with average temperatures that vary from 25 °C (77 °F) during the night to around 34 °C (93.2 °F) during the day, although north of Lambayeque it can reach the 40 °C (104 °F). Winters (June?September) are cooler during the nights; around 16 °C (60.8 °F) during the night, to around 27 °C (80.6 °F) during the daytime.
There are protected areas in
Tumbes
and
Piura
such as the
Coto de Caza El Angolo
and the
Cerros de Amotape National Park
, with
tropical dry forests
that extend to the south of Ecuador. The eastern areas of
Lambayeque
also have tropical dry forests, where the Chaparri Private Conservation Area is located in Chongoyape. These forests have the particularity of connecting with the
Amazon basin
through the
Maranon
pass (an area where there are also tropical dry forests).
Mangrove forests
are located in four specific areas from
Sechura
to
Tumbes
. In these regions, the mangrove forests are at the ending strips of the Piura River in the
Sechura Province
(the southernmost mangroves in the Pacific Ocean). To the north, the ending strips of the
Chira River
,
Tumbes River
, and
Zarumilla River
also have mangrove forests that flow into the ocean.
Terrain:
western
coastal plain
(costa), high and rugged Andes in center (
sierra
), eastern lowland jungle of Amazon Basin (selva).
Natural resources:
copper
,
silver
,
gold
,
petroleum
,
timber
,
fish
,
iron
ore,
coal
,
phosphate
,
potash
,
hydropower
.
Extreme points
[
edit
]
This is a list of the extreme points of Peru, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location.
- Northernmost point:
Putumayo River
(
00°02′21.42096″S
75°11′33.909″W
/
0.0392836000°S 75.19275250°W
/
-0.0392836000; -75.19275250
(
Putumayo River (North)
)
) in the
Putumayo District
,
Maynas Province
,
Loreto Region
- Southernmost point:
Pacific shore
(
18°21′00.41832″S
70°22′34.7538″W
/
18.3501162000°S 70.376320500°W
/
-18.3501162000; -70.376320500
(
Pacific Ocean (South)
)
) in the
Tacna District
,
Tacna Province
,
Tacna Region
- Westernmost point: either
Punta Parinas
(
04°40′45″S
81°19′35″W
/
4.67917°S 81.32639°W
/
-4.67917; -81.32639
(
Punta Parinas (West)
)
) in the
La Brea District
,
Talara Province
,
Piura Region
or
Pacific shore
(1.27 kilometers (1 mi) south of
Punta Parinas
) (
04°40′56.6238″S
81°19′41.64924″W
/
4.682395500°S 81.3282359000°W
/
-4.682395500; -81.3282359000
(
Pacific Ocean (West)
)
) in the
La Brea District
,
Talara Province
,
Piura Region
- Easternmost point: Mouth of the
Heath River
(
12°30′09.20916″S
68°39′11.07468″W
/
12.5025581000°S 68.6530763000°W
/
-12.5025581000; -68.6530763000
(
Mouth of the Heath River (East)
)
) in the
Tambopata District
,
Tambopata Province
,
Madre de Dios Region
Agriculture
[
edit
]
Peru's agricultural lands make up 18.5% of Peru's total surface area, a substantially lower percentage compared to its neighbors who average at around 22% agricultural land.
[22]
[23]
Common crops include, but are not limited to root vegetables like potatoes and cassava; peppers including chilies and paprika; vegetables like asparagus, tomatoes; quinoa; kiwicha; and fruits like mangoes, passion fruit, citrus, and bananas.
[24]
Levels of undernourished citizens and children who suffer from undernourishment has dramatically decreased from just under six million to just over two million between 2000 and 2017, while food availability has increased from an energy percentage of 105 to 117 between 2000 and 2017.
[25]
Environmental degradation
[
edit
]
As food production in Peru increases, farmers saturate the soil with nutrients with nitrogen and phosphorus bases. Oversaturation of nutrients leads to eutrophication in nearby water bodies, resulting in dead zones. Carbon emissions due to manufacturing and food processing leads to reduced air quality which contributes to the global warming that increases severity of natural disasters and acidifies the ocean, leading to mass bleaching in coral reefs, which in turn tends to destroy oceanic ecosystems.
[25]
[26]
[27]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
"The Geographical Regions of Peru: Classification and Diverse Theories"
(PDF)
.
- ^
Peru Atlas, 1989. Page 108. National Geographic Institute, Lima-Peru
- ^
"Peru PE: Surface Area | Economic Indicators | CEIC"
.
www.ceicdata.com
. Retrieved
2024-02-23
.
- ^
Brittany, Derrick; Khalfallah, Myriam; Relano, Veronica; Zeller, Dirk; Pauly, Daniel (2021-03-31).
"Updating to 2018 the 1950- 2010 marine catch reconstructions of the Sea Around Us. Part II: The Americas and Asia-Pacific"
.
Fisheries Centre Research Reports
.
28
(6): 270.
ISSN
1198-6727
. Retrieved
2023-12-27
– via The University of British Columbia.
- ^
McCaffrey, Stephen C.; Leb, Christina; T.Denoon, Riley.
Research Handbook on International Water Law
. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 494.
ISBN
978-1-78536-808-0
.
- ^
"Population Pyramids of the World from 1950 to 2100"
.
PopulationPyramid.net
. Retrieved
2018-11-03
.
- ^
"Peru Urbanization - Demographics"
.
www.indexmundi.com
. Retrieved
3 November
2018
.
- ^
"Major Cities in Peru: The Largest and the Most Popular | New Peruvian"
.
New Peruvian
. 21 December 2017
. Retrieved
2018-11-02
.
- ^
"Peru Population 2018 (Demographics, Maps, Graphs)"
.
worldpopulationreview.com
. Retrieved
2018-11-20
.
- ^
"Growing Pains: Urbanization and Governance in Peru"
.
www.worldpoliticsreview.com
. Retrieved
2018-11-20
.
- ^
"World Health Organization Says Lima has Worst Air Pollution in LatAm"
. Retrieved
2018-11-20
.
- ^
"Water Contamination and its Impact on Vegetable Production in the Rimac River, Peru"
.
- ^
Cueto, Marcos (2001).
The Return of Epidemics : Health and Society in Peru During the Twentieth Century
. Florence: Taylor and Francis. p. 108.
ISBN
9781351882897
. Retrieved
4 June
2022
.
- ^
"Ruins at risk: Peru's urban growth threatens to erase pre-colonial sites"
.
Durango Herald
. Archived from
the original
on 2018-11-28
. Retrieved
2018-11-08
.
- ^
Gaier, Rodrigo Viga.
"Bolsonaro's economic guru urges quick Brazil pension reform"
.
U.S
. Retrieved
2018-11-08
.
- ^
"Venezuelans dash to cross Peru border"
.
BBC News
. Retrieved
2018-11-08
.
- ^
"Peru Travel"
.
www.peru.travel
(in European Spanish)
. Retrieved
2021-02-24
.
- ^
"Horizontal en Blanco | Earth & Life Sciences | Earth Sciences"
.
Scribd
. Retrieved
2019-02-25
.
- ^
Instituto de Estudios Historico-Maritimos del Peru; Rosa Graciela Ponce de Leon Bardalez (1994).
El Peru y sus recursos: Atlas geografico y economico
. Lima: Auge. p. 16.
- ^
Painter, James (7 December 2008).
"Peru aims for zero deforestation"
.
BBC News
.
- ^
Moseley, M. E. (1992).
The Incas and their ancestors: the archaeology of Peru
. London: Thames and Hudson.
ISBN
9780500050637
.
- ^
"Chile"
.
www.fao.org
. Food and Agriculture Organization
. Retrieved
28 November
2018
.
- ^
"Ecuador"
.
www.fao.org
. Food and Agriculture Organization
. Retrieved
28 November
2018
.
- ^
"About Peru:Agriculture"
.
www.peruinformation.org
. CERMAL-EDITIONS
. Retrieved
28 November
2018
.
- ^
a
b
"Peru"
.
fao.org
. Food and Agriculture Organization
. Retrieved
28 November
2018
.
- ^
"What is Eutrophication"
.
oceanservice.noaa.gov
. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
. Retrieved
28 November
2018
.
- ^
"What is Acidification"
.
oceanservice.noaa.gov
. National Ocean and Atmospheric Administration
. Retrieved
28 November
2018
.
Bibliography
[
edit
]
- Aduni Institute (2003).
Compendio academico de Geografia
[
Academic Compendium of Geography
] (in Spanish). Lumbreras.
- Baca Zuta, Davis (2019).
Las regiones geograficas del Peru, clasificacion y teorias diversas
[
The Geographical Regions of Peru: Classification and Diverse Theories
] (in Spanish).
- Benavides Estrada, Juan (1999).
Geografia del Peru 2do ano de Secuandaria
[
Geography of Peru for 2nd Grade of Secondary School
] (in Spanish). Escuela Nueva.
- Pulgar Vidal, Javier (1987).
Geografia del Peru
[
Geography of Peru (9th ed.)
] (in Spanish). PEISA.
ISBN
84-599-6883-9
.
- National Geographic Institute (1989).
Atlas del Peru
[
Atlas of Peru
] (in Spanish).
External links
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