Geography of Canada
|
Continent
| North America
|
---|
Region
| Northern America
|
---|
Coordinates
| 60°00′N
95°00′W
/
60.000°N 95.000°W
/
60.000; -95.000
|
---|
Area
| Ranked 2nd
|
---|
? Total
| 9,984,671 km
2
(3,855,103 sq mi)
|
---|
? Land
| 91.08%
|
---|
? Water
| 8.92%
|
---|
Coastline
| 243,042 km (151,019 mi)
|
---|
Borders
| 8,893 km
|
---|
Highest point
| Mount Logan
,
5,959 m (19,551 ft)
|
---|
Lowest point
| Atlantic Ocean, Sea Level
|
---|
Longest river
| Mackenzie River
,
4,241 km (2,635 mi)
|
---|
Largest lake
| Great Bear Lake
31,153 km
2
(12,028 sq mi)
|
---|
Climate
| temperate
, or
humid continental
to
subarctic
or
arctic
in north, and
tundra
in mountainous areas, and the far north
|
---|
Terrain
| mostly
plains
and
mountains
in west, to highlands (low mountains) in the south east, and east, to flatlands in the
Great lakes
|
---|
Natural resources
| iron ore,
nickel
,
zinc
, copper, gold, lead,
molybdenum
,
potash
,
diamonds
, silver, fish, timber,
wildlife
, coal, petroleum, natural gas,
hydropower
|
---|
Natural hazards
| permafrost
,
cyclonic storms
,
tornadoes
, earthquakes,
forest fires
|
---|
Environmental issues
| air
and
water pollution
,
acid rains
|
---|
Exclusive economic zone
| 5,599,077 km
2
(2,161,816 sq mi)
|
---|
Canada
has a vast geography that occupies much of the continent of
North America
, sharing a
land border
with the
contiguous United States
to the south and the U.S. state of
Alaska
to the northwest. Canada stretches from the
Atlantic Ocean
in the east to the
Pacific Ocean
in the west; to the north lies the
Arctic Ocean
.
[1]
Greenland
is to the northeast with a shared border on
Hans Island
. To the southeast Canada shares a
maritime boundary
with France's
overseas collectivity
of
Saint Pierre and Miquelon
, the last vestige of
New France
.
[2]
By total area (including its waters), Canada is the
second-largest country
in the world, after Russia. By land area alone, however, Canada
ranks fourth
, the difference being due to it having the world's largest proportion of fresh water lakes.
[3]
Of Canada's
thirteen provinces and territories
, only two are landlocked (
Alberta
and
Saskatchewan
) while the other eleven all directly border one of three oceans.
Canada is home to the world's northernmost settlement,
Canadian Forces Station Alert
, on the northern tip of
Ellesmere Island
?latitude 82.5°N?which lies 817 kilometres (508 mi) from the North Pole.
[4]
Much of the
Canadian Arctic
is covered by ice and
permafrost
.
[5]
Canada has
the longest coastline
in the world, with a total length of 243,042 kilometres (151,019 mi);
[6]
additionally,
its border with the United States
is the world's longest land border, stretching 8,891 kilometres (5,525 mi).
[7]
Three of Canada's
Arctic islands
,
Baffin Island
,
Victoria Island
and
Ellesmere Island
, are among the ten largest in the world.
[8]
Canada can be divided into seven physiographic regions: the
Canadian Shield
, the
interior plains
, the
Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands
, the
Appalachian region
, the
Western Cordillera
,
Hudson Bay Lowlands
and the
Arctic Archipelago
.
[9]
Canada is also divided into
fifteen terrestrial and five marine ecozones
,
[10]
encompassing over 80,000 classified species of life.
[11]
Since the end of the last
glacial period
, Canada has consisted of
eight distinct forest regions
, including extensive
boreal
forest on the
Canadian Shield
;
[12]
42 percent of the land acreage of Canada is covered by forests (approximately 8 percent of the world's forested land), made up mostly of
spruce
,
poplar
and
pine
.
[13]
Canada has over 2,000,000 lakes?563 greater than 100 km
2
(39 sq mi)?which is more than any other country, containing much of the world's
fresh water
.
[14]
[15]
There are also freshwater glaciers in the
Canadian Rockies
, the
Coast Mountains
and the
Arctic Cordillera
.
[16]
A recent global
remote sensing
analysis also suggested that there were 6,477 km
2
of tidal flats in Canada, making it the 5th ranked country in terms of how much tidal flat occurs there.
[17]
Protected areas of Canada
and
National Wildlife Areas
have been established to preserve ecosystems.
[18]
Canada is geologically active, having many earthquakes and potentially active volcanoes, notably the
Mount Meager massif
,
Mount Garibaldi
,
Mount Cayley
, and the
Mount Edziza volcanic complex
.
[19]
Average winter and summer high
temperatures across Canada
range from
Arctic weather
in the north, to hot summers in the southern regions, with four distinct seasons.
Physiography
[
edit
]
Canada covers 9,984,670 km
2
(3,855,100 sq mi) and a panoply of various geoclimatic regions, of which there are seven main regions.
[9]
Canada also encompasses vast maritime terrain, with the world's longest coastline of 243,042 kilometres (151,019 mi).
[20]
The
physical geography
of Canada is widely varied.
Boreal forests
prevail throughout the country, ice is prominent in
northerly Arctic regions
and through the
Canadian Rocky Mountains
, and the relatively flat
Canadian Prairies
in the southwest facilitate productive agriculture.
[21]
The
Great Lakes
feed the
St. Lawrence River
(in the southeast) where lowlands host much of Canada's population.
The
National Topographic System
is used by
Natural Resources Canada
for providing general purpose
topographic
maps of the country. The maps provide details on landforms and terrain, lakes and rivers, forested areas, administrative zones, populated areas, roads and railways, as well as other man-made features.
[22]
These maps are used by all levels of government and industry for
forest fire
and
flood control
(as well as other environmental issues), depiction of crop areas, right-of-way, real estate planning, development of natural resources and highway planning.
[22]
Appalachian Mountains
[
edit
]
The
Appalachian mountain range
extends from
Alabama
in
southern United States
through the
Gaspe Peninsula
and the
Atlantic Provinces
, creating rolling hills indented by river valleys.
[23]
It also runs through parts of southern
Quebec
.
[23]
The Appalachian Mountains (more specifically the
Chic-Choc
,
Notre Dame
, and
Long Range Mountains
) are an old and eroded range of mountains, approximately 380 million years in age. Notable mountains in the Appalachians include
Mount Jacques-Cartier
(Quebec, 1,268 m or 4,160 ft),
Mount Carleton
(
New Brunswick
, 817 m or 2,680 ft),
The Cabox
(
Newfoundland
, 814 m or 2,671 ft).
[24]
Parts of the Appalachians are home to a rich
endemic
flora and fauna and are considered to have been
nunataks
during the last
glaciation
era.
Great Lakes and St. Lawrence Lowlands
[
edit
]
The
Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands
, or simply St. Lawrence Lowlands, is a
physiographic region
of
Eastern Canada
that comprises a section of southern
Ontario
bounded on the north by the
Canadian Shield
and by three of the
Great Lakes
?
Lake Huron
,
Lake Erie
and
Lake Ontario
? and extends along the
St. Lawrence River
to the
Strait of Belle Isle
[25]
and the
Atlantic Ocean
. The lowlands comprise three sub-regions that were created by intrusions from adjacent physiographic regions ? the West Lowland, Central Lowland and East Lowland.
[25]
The West Lowland includes the
Niagara Escarpment
, extending from the
Niagara River
to the
Bruce Peninsula
and
Manitoulin Island
.
[25]
The Central Lowland stretches between the
Ottawa River
and the St. Lawrence River.
[25]
The East Lowland includes
Anticosti Island
,
Iles de Mingan
, and extends to the Strait of Belle Isle.
The St. Lawrence Lowlands is one of the most densely populated, prosperous and productive regions in
Canada
. Major urban areas include
Toronto
,
Montreal
,
Ottawa-Gatineau
and
Quebec City
.
The St. Lawrence Lowlands was covered by
surficial deposits
left by
ice sheets
following the
Pleistocene
glaciations.
[25]
It is the smallest of Canada's seven physiographic regions ? the others being the
Arctic Lands
, the
Cordillera
, the
Interior Plains
, the
Canadian Shield
, the
Hudson Bay Lowlands
and the
Appalachian Uplands
? distinguished by topography and geology.
[25]
The boundaries of the area largely reflect that of the
Mixedwood Plains Ecozone
, the smallest of Canada's fifteen terrestrial
ecozones
.
Canadian Shield
[
edit
]
The northeastern part of
Alberta
, northern parts of
Saskatchewan
,
Manitoba
, Ontario and Quebec, all of
Labrador
and the
Great Northern Peninsula
of
Newfoundland
, eastern mainland
Northwest Territories
, most of
Nunavut
's mainland and, of its
Arctic Archipelago
,
Baffin Island
and significant bands through Somerset, Southampton, Devon and Ellesmere islands are located on a vast
rock base
known as the
Canadian Shield
.
[26]
The Shield mostly consists of eroded hilly terrain and contains many lakes and important rivers used for
hydroelectric
production, particularly in northern Quebec and Ontario. The Shield also encloses an area of
wetlands
around the
Hudson Bay
. Some particular regions of the Shield are referred to as
mountain ranges
, including the
Torngat
and
Laurentian Mountains
.
[27]
The Shield cannot support intensive agriculture, although there is subsistence agriculture and small dairy farms in many of the river valleys and around the abundant lakes, particularly in the southern regions.
Boreal forest
covers much of the shield, with a mix of
conifers
that provide valuable timber resources in areas such as the
Central Canadian Shield forests
ecoregion
that covers much of
Northern Ontario
.
The Canadian Shield is known for its vast
mineral
reserves such as
emeralds
,
diamonds
and
copper
, and is there also called the "mineral house".
[27]
Canadian Interior Plains
[
edit
]
The
Canadian Prairies
(usually referred to as simply the Prairies in Canada) is a region in
Western Canada
. It includes the Canadian portion of the
Great Plains
and the Prairie provinces, namely
Alberta
,
Saskatchewan
, and
Manitoba
.
[28]
These provinces are partially covered by
grasslands
,
plains
, and
lowlands
, mostly in the southern regions. The northernmost reaches of the Canadian Prairies are less dense in population, marked by
forests
and more variable
topography
.
[29]
If the region is defined to include areas only covered by prairie land, the corresponding region is known as the
Interior Plains
.
[30]
Physical or ecological aspects of the Canadian Prairies extend to northeastern
British Columbia
, but that area is not included in political use of the term.
[31]
The prairies in Canada are a
temperate grassland
and
shrubland
biome
within the
prairie
ecoregion
of Canada that consists of
northern mixed grasslands
in Alberta, Saskatchewan, southern Manitoba, as well as northern short grasslands in southeastern Alberta and southwestern Saskatchewan.
[32]
The
Prairies Ecozone
of Canada includes the
northern tall grasslands
in southern Manitoba and Aspen parkland, which covers central Alberta, central Saskatchewan, and southern Manitoba.
[33]
The Prairie starts from north of
Edmonton
and it covers the three provinces in a southward-slanting line east to the Manitoba?
Minnesota
border.
[34]
Alberta has the most land classified as prairie, while Manitoba has the least, as the
boreal forest
begins more southerly in Manitoba than in Alberta.
[35]
Canadian Arctic
[
edit
]
While the largest part of the Canadian Arctic is composed of seemingly endless
permafrost
and
tundra
north of the
tree line
, it encompasses geological regions of varying types: the
Arctic Cordillera
(with the
British Empire Range
and the
United States Range
on
Ellesmere Island
) contains the northernmost mountain system in the world. The
Arctic Lowlands
and Hudson Bay lowlands comprise a substantial part of the geographic region often designated as the Canadian Shield (in contrast to the sole geologic area). The ground in the Arctic is mostly composed of permafrost, making construction difficult and often hazardous, and agriculture virtually impossible.
[36]
The Arctic, when defined as everything north of the tree line, covers most of
Nunavut
and the northernmost parts of Northwest Territories,
Yukon
, Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec and Labrador. The archipelago consists of 36,563 islands, of which 94 are classified as major islands, being larger than 130 km
2
(50 sq mi), and cover a total area of 1,400,000 km
2
(540,000 sq mi).
[36]
Western Cordillera
[
edit
]
The
Coast Mountains
in
British Columbia
run from the lower
Fraser River
and the
Fraser Canyon
northwestward, separating the
Interior Plateau
from the Pacific Ocean.
[37]
Its southeastern end is separated from the
North Cascades
by the
Fraser Lowland
, where nearly a third of
Western Canada
's population reside.
The coastal flank of the Coast Mountains is characterized by an intense network of
fjords
and associated islands, very similar to the
Norwegian
coastline in
Northern Europe
; while their inland side transitions to the high
plateau
with
dryland
valleys notable for a series of large
alpine lakes
similar to those in southern
Switzerland
, beginning in deep mountains and ending in flatland. They are subdivided in three main groups, the
Pacific Ranges
between the Fraser River and
Bella Coola
, the
Kitimat Ranges
from there northwards to the
Nass River
, and the
Boundary Ranges
from there to the mountain terminus in Yukon at
Champagne Pass
and
Chilkat Pass
northwest of
Haines, Alaska
.
[37]
The
Saint Elias Mountains
lie to their west and northwest, while the
Yukon Ranges
and Yukon Basin lie to their north. On the inland side of the Boundary Ranges are the
Tahltan
and
Tagish Highlands
and also the
Skeena Mountains
, part of the
Interior Mountains
system, which also extend southwards on the inland side of the
Kitimat Ranges
.
[37]
The terrain of the main spine of the Coast Mountains is typified by heavy
glaciation
, including several very large
icefields
of varying elevation. Of the three subdivisions, the Pacific Ranges are the highest and are crowned by
Mount Waddington
, while the Boundary Ranges contain the largest icefields, the
Juneau Icefield
being the largest. The Kitimat Ranges are lower and less glacier-covered than either of the other two groupings, but are extremely rugged and dense.
The Coast Mountains are made of
igneous
and
metamorphic rock
from an episode of
arc volcanism
related to
subduction
of the
Kula
and
Farallon Plates
during the
Laramide orogeny
about 100 million years ago.
[38]
The widespread
granite
forming the Coast Mountains formed when magma intruded and cooled at depth beneath volcanoes of the
Coast Range Arc
whereas the metamorphic formed when intruding magma heated the surrounding rock to produce
schist
.
The
Insular Mountains
extend from
Vancouver Island
in the south to the
Haida Gwaii
in the north on the
British Columbia Coast
. It contains two main mountain ranges, the
Vancouver Island Ranges
on Vancouver Island and the
Queen Charlotte Mountains
on Haida Gwaii.
[39]
Hudson Bay Lowlands
[
edit
]
The
Hudson Bay Lowlands
is a vast
wetland
located between the
Canadian Shield
and southern shores of
Hudson Bay
and
James Bay
. Most of the area lies within the province of
Ontario
, with smaller portions reaching into
Manitoba
and
Quebec
. Many wide and slow-moving
rivers
flow through this area toward the saltwater of Hudson Bay: these include the
Churchill
,
Nelson
and
Hayes
in Manitoba,
Severn
,
Fawn
,
Winisk
, Asheweig,
Ekwan
,
Attawapiskat
, and
Albany
in Ontario, and the
Harricana
,
Rupert
and
Eastmain
in Quebec.
[40]
This is the largest wetland in Canada, and one of the largest in the world.
[41]
The region can be subdivided into three bands running roughly northwest to southeast: the Coastal Hudson Bay Lowland (a narrow band along the northern coast),
[42]
Hudson Bay Lowland (a broader band extending to slightly south of the Ekwan River),
[43]
and James Bay Lowland (all the rest of the southern/eastern lands, making up close to 50% of the total Lowlands area).
[44]
The entire area was covered by ice during the last
glaciation
, and the
peatlands
have accumulated over the last ten thousand years. Plants from more temperate regions mix with arctic species.
[45]
A majority of the wetland is peat
bog
, although salt marshes occur along the coast, and marshes and
wet meadows
occur along the major rivers. The wetlands provide important habitat for migratory birds including shorebirds (e.g.,
yellow rail
) and waterfowl (e.g.,
snow geese
). Large mammals include
polar bears
and
wolverines
.
[41]
Extreme points
[
edit
]
The northernmost point of land within the boundaries of Canada is
Cape Columbia
,
Ellesmere Island
,
Nunavut
83°06′40″N
69°58′19″W
/
83.111°N 69.972°W
/
83.111; -69.972
(
Cape Columbia, Nunavut
)
.
[46]
The northernmost point of the Canadian mainland is
Zenith Point
on
Boothia Peninsula
, Nunavut
72°00′07″N
94°39′18″W
/
72.002°N 94.655°W
/
72.002; -94.655
(
Zenith Point, Nunavut
)
.
[46]
The southernmost point is
Middle Island
, in
Lake Erie
, Ontario (41°41′N 82°40′W); the southernmost water point lies just south of the island, on the Ontario?
Ohio
border (41°40′35″N). The southernmost point of the Canadian mainland is
Point Pelee
, Ontario
41°54′32″N
82°30′32″W
/
41.909°N 82.509°W
/
41.909; -82.509
(
Point Pelee, Ontario
)
.
[46]
The lowest point is sea level at 0 m,
[47]
whilst the highest point is
Mount Logan
,
Yukon
, at 5,959 m / 19,550 ft
60°34′01″N
140°24′18″W
/
60.567°N 140.405°W
/
60.567; -140.405
(
Mount Logan, Yukon
)
.
[46]
The westernmost point is
Boundary Peak 187
(60°18′22.929″N 141°00′7.128″W) at the southern end of the
Yukon
?
Alaska
border, which roughly follows 141°W but leans very slightly east as it goes North
60°18′04″N
141°00′36″W
/
60.301°N 141.010°W
/
60.301; -141.010
(
Boundary Peak 187
)
.
[48]
[46]
The easternmost point is
Cape Spear
, Newfoundland (47°31′N 52°37′W)
47°31′23″N
52°37′08″W
/
47.523°N 52.619°W
/
47.523; -52.619
(
Cape Spear, Newfoundland
)
.
[46]
The easternmost point of the Canadian mainland is Elijah Point,
Cape St. Charles
, Labrador (52°13′N 55°37′W)
52°13′01″N
55°37′16″W
/
52.217°N 55.621°W
/
52.217; -55.621
(
Elijah Point, Labrador
)
.
[46]
The Canadian
pole of inaccessibility
is allegedly near Jackfish River,
Alberta
(59°2′N 112°49′W).
[49]
The furthest straight-line distance that can be travelled to Canadian points of land is between the southwest tip of
Kluane National Park and Reserve
(next to
Mount Saint Elias
) and Cripple Cove,
Newfoundland
(near
Cape Race
) at a distance of 3,005.60 nautical miles (5,566.37 km; 3,458.78 mi).
Climatology
[
edit
]
Climate varies widely from region to region. Winters can be harsh in many parts of the country, particularly in the interior and Prairie provinces, which experience a
continental climate
, where daily average temperatures are near ?15
°C
(5
°F
), but can drop below ?40 °C (?40 °F) with severe
wind chills
.
[50]
In non-coastal regions, snow can cover the ground for almost six months of the year, while in parts of the north snow can persist year-round. Coastal British Columbia has a temperate climate, with a mild and rainy winter. On the east and west coasts, average high temperatures are generally in the low 20s °C (70s °F), while between the coasts, the average summer high temperature ranges from 25 to 30 °C (77 to 86 °F), with temperatures in some interior locations occasionally exceeding 40 °C (104 °F).
[51]
Much of
Northern Canada
is covered by ice and
permafrost
; however, the future of the permafrost is uncertain because the Arctic has been warming at three times the global average as a result of
climate change in Canada
.
[52]
Canada's annual average temperature over land has warmed by 1.7 °C (3.1 °F), with changes ranging from 1.1 to 2.3 °C (2.0 to 4.1 °F) in various regions, since 1948.
[53]
The rate of warming has been higher across the North and in the Prairies.
[53]
In the southern regions of Canada,
air pollution
from both Canada and the United States?caused by metal smelting, burning coal to power utilities, and vehicle emissions?has resulted in
acid rain
, which has severely impacted waterways, forest growth and
agricultural productivity in Canada
.
[54]
Biogeography
[
edit
]
Canada is divided into fifteen major terrestrial and five marine ecozones
, that are further subdivided into 53
ecoprovinces
, 194
ecoregions
, and 1,027
ecodistricts
.
[10]
These eco-areas encompass over 80,000 classified species of
Canadian wildlife
, with an equal number yet to be formally recognized or discovered.
[55]
Due to pollution,
loss of biodiversity
, over-exploitation of commercial species, invasive species, and habitat loss, there are currently more than
800 wild life species at risk of being lost
.
[56]
Canada's major biomes are the
tundra
,
boreal forest
,
grassland
, and
temperate deciduous forest
.
British Columbia
contains several smaller biomes, including;
mountain forest
which extends to
Alberta
, and a small
temperate rainforest
along the
Pacific coast
, the
semi arid desert
located in the
Okanagan
and
alpine tundra
in the higher mountainous regions.
[57]
Over half of Canada's landscape is intact and relatively free of human development.
[58]
Approximately half of Canada is covered by forest, totaling around 2.4 million km
2
(0.93 million sq mi).
[59]
The
boreal forest of Canada
is considered to be the largest
intact forest
on earth, with around 300,000 square kilometres (120,000 sq mi) undisturbed by roads, cities or industry.
[60]
The
Canadian Arctic tundra
is the second-largest vegetation region in the country consisting of dwarf
shrubs
,
sedges
and
grasses
,
mosses
and
lichens
.
[61]
Approximately 12.1 percent of the nation's landmass and freshwater are
conservation areas
, including 11.4 percent designated as
protected areas
.
[18]
Approximately 13.8 percent of its territorial waters are conserved, including 8.9 percent designated as protected areas.
[18]
Palaeogeography
[
edit
]
Volcanic activity
is a major part of the
geology of Canada
and is characterized by many types of volcanic
landform
, including
lava
flows,
volcanic plateaus
,
lava domes
,
cinder cones
,
stratovolcanoes
,
shield volcanoes
,
submarine volcanoes
,
calderas
,
diatremes
, and
maars
, along with less common volcanic forms such as
tuyas
and
subglacial mounds
.
Though
Canada
's volcanic history dates back to the
Precambrian
eon, at least 3.11 billion years ago, when its part of the
North American
continent began to form,
[62]
volcanism continues to occur in
Western
and
Northern Canada
in modern times, where it forms part of an encircling chain of volcanoes and frequent
earthquakes
around the
Pacific Ocean
called the
Pacific Ring of Fire
.
[63]
Because volcanoes in Western and Northern Canada are in relatively remote and sparsely populated areas and their activity is less frequent than with other volcanoes around the Pacific Ocean, Canada is commonly thought to occupy a gap in the Ring of Fire between the volcanoes of the
western United States
to the south and the
Aleutian volcanoes
of
Alaska
to the north.
[64]
Even so, the mountainous landscapes of the Canadian provinces of
Alberta
,
British Columbia
,
Yukon
, and the
Northwest Territories
include more than 100 volcanoes that have been active during the past two million years and whose eruptions have claimed many lives.
[64]
Volcanic activity is responsible for many of Canada's geological and geographical features and
mineralization
, including the nucleus of the North American continent, known as the
Canadian Shield
. Volcanism has led to the formation of hundreds of volcanic areas and extensive lava formations across Canada. The country's different volcano and lava types originate from different
tectonic
settings and
types of volcanic eruptions
, ranging from passive
lava eruptions
to violent
explosive eruptions
. Canada has a rich record of very large volumes of magmatic rock called
large igneous provinces
, represented by deep-level
plumbing systems
consisting of giant
dike swarms
,
sill
provinces and layered
intrusions
.
[65]
The most capable large igneous provinces in Canada are
Archean
greenstone belts
estimated at 3.8 to 2.5 billion years old, containing a rare volcanic rock called
komatiite
.
[65]
Hydrography
[
edit
]
Canada holds vast reserves of water: its rivers discharge nearly 7% of the world's renewable water supply,
[66]
Canada has over 2,000,000 lakes
?563 greater than 100 square kilometres (39 sq mi)?which is more than any other country and has the third largest amount of
glacier
water.
[67]
Canada is also home to about twenty five percent (134.6 million ha) of the world's
wetlands
that support a vast array of local ecosystems.
[68]
Canada's waterways
host forty-seven rivers of at least 600 kilometres (370 mi) in length, with the two longest being the
Mackenzie River
, that begins at
Great Slave Lake
and ends in the
Arctic Ocean
, with its drainage basin covering a large part of northwestern Canada, and the
Saint Lawrence River
, which drains the
Great Lakes
into the
Gulf of St. Lawrence
ending in the
Atlantic Ocean
. The Mackenzie, including its tributaries is over 4,200 kilometres (2,600 mi) in length and lies within the second largest
drainage basin of North America
, while the St. Lawrence 3,058 kilometres (1,900 mi) in length, drains the world's
largest system of freshwater lakes
.
[69]
The Atlantic watershed drains the entirety of the
Atlantic provinces
(parts of the Quebec-Labrador border are fixed at the Atlantic Ocean-Arctic Ocean
continental divide
), most of inhabited Quebec and large parts of southern Ontario. It is mostly drained by the economically important St. Lawrence River and its tributaries, notably the
Saguenay
,
Manicouagan
, and Ottawa rivers. The Great Lakes and
Lake Nipigon
are also drained by the St. Lawrence. The
Churchill River
and
Saint John River
are other important elements of the Atlantic watershed in Canada.
[70]
The
Hudson Bay watershed
drains over a third of Canada. It covers Manitoba, northern Ontario and Quebec, most of Saskatchewan, southern Alberta, southwestern Nunavut, and the southern half of
Baffin Island
. This basin is most important in fighting drought in the
prairies
and producing hydroelectricity, especially in Manitoba, northern Ontario and Quebec. Major elements of this watershed include
Lake Winnipeg
, Nelson River, the North Saskatchewan and
South Saskatchewan Rivers
,
Assiniboine River
, and
Nettilling Lake
on Baffin Island.
Wollaston Lake
lies on the boundary between the Hudson Bay and Arctic Ocean watersheds and
drains into both
. It is the largest lake in the world that naturally drains in two directions.
[70]
The
continental divide
in the Rockies separates the Pacific watershed in British Columbia and Yukon from the Arctic and Hudson Bay watersheds. This watershed irrigates the agriculturally important areas of inner British Columbia (such as the
Okanagan
and
Kootenay
valleys), and is used to produce hydroelectricity. Major elements are the Yukon,
Columbia
and Fraser rivers.
[70]
The northern parts of Alberta, Manitoba, and British Columbia, most of Northwest Territories and Nunavut, and parts of Yukon are drained by the Arctic watershed. This watershed has been little used for hydroelectricity, with the exception of the Mackenzie River. The
Peace
, Athabasca and
Liard Rivers
, as well as Great Bear Lake and Great Slave Lake (respectively the largest and second largest lakes wholly enclosed by Canada) are significant elements of the Arctic watershed. Each of these elements eventually merges with the Mackenzie, thereby draining the vast majority of the Arctic watershed.
[70]
The southernmost part of Alberta drains into the Gulf of Mexico through the
Milk River
and its tributaries. The Milk River originates in the Rocky Mountains of
Montana
, then flows into Alberta, then returns into the United States, where it is drained by the
Missouri River
. A small area of southwestern Saskatchewan is drained by
Battle Creek
, which empties into the Milk River.
[70]
Natural resources
[
edit
]
Canada's abundance of
natural resources
is reflected in their continued importance in the
economy of Canada
. Major resource-based industries are
fisheries
,
forestry
, agriculture,
petroleum products
and mining.
[71]
The fisheries industry has historically been one of Canada's strongest. Unmatched
cod
stocks on the
Grand Banks
of Newfoundland launched this industry in the 16th century. Today these stocks are nearly depleted, and their conservation has become a preoccupation of the
Atlantic Provinces
. On the West Coast,
tuna
stocks are now restricted. The less depleted (but still greatly diminished)
salmon
population continues to drive a strong fisheries industry. Canada claims 22 km (12 nmi) of territorial sea, a contiguous zone of 44 km (24 nmi), an
exclusive economic zone
of 5,599,077 km
2
(2,161,816 sq mi) with 370 km (200 nmi) and a continental shelf of 370 km (200 nmi) or to the edge of the continental margin.
Five per cent of Canada's land area is arable, none of which is for permanent crops. Three per cent of Canada's land area is covered by permanent pastures. Canada has 7,200 square kilometres (2,800 sq mi) of irrigated land (1993 estimate). Agricultural regions in Canada include the Canadian Prairies, the
Lower Mainland
and various regions within the
Interior of British Columbia
, the
St. Lawrence Basin
and the Canadian
Maritimes
. Main crops in Canada include
flax
,
oats
, wheat, maize,
barley
,
sugar beets
and
rye
in the prairies; flax and maize in
Western Ontario
; Oats and potatoes in the Maritimes.
Fruit
and vegetables are grown primarily in the
Annapolis Valley
of Nova Scotia,
Southwestern Ontario
, the
Golden Horseshoe
region of Ontario, along the south coast of
Georgian Bay
and in the
Okanagan
Valley of British Columbia. Cattle and
sheep
are raised in the valleys and plateaus of British Columbia. Cattle, sheep and
hogs
are raised on the prairies, cattle and hogs in Western Ontario, sheep and hogs in Quebec, and sheep in the Maritimes. There are significant dairy regions in central Nova Scotia, southern New Brunswick, the St. Lawrence Valley,
northeastern Ontario
, southwestern Ontario, the
Red River
valley of Manitoba and the valleys in the
British Columbia Interior
, on
Vancouver Island
and in the
Lower Mainland
.
Fossil fuels are a more recently developed resource in Canada, with
oil
and
gas
being extracted from deposits in the
Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin
since the mid-1900s. While Canada's
crude oil
deposits are fewer, technological developments in recent decades have opened up oil production in Alberta's
Oil Sands
to the point where Canada now has some of the largest reserves of oil in the world. In other forms, Canadian industry has a long history of extracting large coal and natural gas reserves.
Canada's mineral resources are diverse and extensive. Across the Canadian Shield and in the north there are large iron,
nickel
,
zinc
, copper, gold, lead,
molybdenum
, and
uranium
reserves. Large diamond concentrations have been recently developed in the Arctic, making Canada one of the world's largest producers. Throughout the Shield there are many mining towns extracting these minerals. The largest, and best known, is
Sudbury
, Ontario. Sudbury is an exception to the normal process of forming minerals in the Shield since there is significant evidence that the
Sudbury Basin
is an ancient
meteorite
impact crater
. The nearby, but less known
Temagami Magnetic Anomaly
has striking similarities to the Sudbury Basin. Its magnetic anomalies are very similar to the Sudbury Basin, and so it could be a second metal-rich impact crater.
[72]
The Shield is also covered by vast boreal forests that support an important logging industry.
Canada's many rivers have afforded extensive development of hydroelectric power. Extensively developed in British Columbia, Ontario, Quebec and Labrador, the many dams have long provided a clean, dependable source of energy.
Environmental issues
[
edit
]
Air pollution and resulting
acid rain
severely affects lakes and damages forests.
[54]
Metal smelting, coal-burning utilities, and vehicle emissions impact agricultural and forest productivity. Ocean waters are also becoming contaminated by agricultural, industrial, mining, and forestry activities.
[54]
Global
climate change
and the warming of the polar region will likely cause significant changes to the environment, including loss of the
polar bear
,
[73]
the exploration for resource then the extraction of these resources and an alternative transport route to the
Panama Canal
through the
Northwest Passage
.
Canada is currently warming at twice the global average, and this is effectively irreversible.
[74]
Political geography
[
edit
]
Canada is divided into
ten provinces and three territories
. According to
Statistics Canada
, 72.0 percent of the population is concentrated within 150 kilometres (93 mi) of the nation's southern border with the United States, 70.0% live south of the
49th parallel
, and over 60 percent of the population lives along the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River between
Windsor, Ontario
, and
Quebec City
. This leaves the vast majority of Canada's territory as sparsely populated wilderness; Canada's population density is 3.5 people per square kilometre (9.1 people/sq mi), among the lowest in the world. Despite this, 79.7 percent of Canada's population resides in urban areas, where population densities are increasing.
[75]
Canada shares with the U.S. the world's
longest binational border
at 8,893 kilometres (5,526 mi); 2,477 kilometres (1,539 mi) are with
Alaska
. The Danish island dependency of
Greenland
lies to Canada's northeast, separated from the
Canadian Arctic islands
by
Baffin Bay
and
Davis Strait
. As of June 14, 2022, Canada shares a land border with Greenland on Hans Island.
[76]
The French islands of
Saint Pierre and Miquelon
lie off the southern coast of
Newfoundland
in the
Gulf of St. Lawrence
and have a maritime territorial enclave within Canada's
exclusive economic zone
.
[77]
Canada's geographic proximity to the United States has historically bound the two countries together in the political world as well. Canada's position between the
Soviet Union
(now Russia) and the U.S. was strategically important during the
Cold War
since the route over the North Pole and Canada was the fastest route by air between the two countries and the most direct route for
intercontinental ballistic missiles
. Since the end of the Cold War, there has been growing speculation that
Canada's Arctic
maritime claims may become increasingly important if
global warming
melts the ice enough to open the
Northwest Passage
.
See also
[
edit
]
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[
edit
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{{
cite web
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link
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Further reading
[
edit
]
- Bailey, William G; Oke, TR; Rouse, Wayne R (1997).
The surface climates of Canada
. McGill-Queen's University Press.
ISBN
0-7735-1672-7
.
- Drushka, Ken (2003).
Canada's forests: a history
. McGill-Queen's University Press.
ISBN
0-7735-2660-9
.
- Etkin, David; Haque, CE; Brooks, Gregory R (2003).
An Assessment of Natural Hazards and Disasters in Canada
. Springer.
ISBN
978-1-4020-1179-5
.
- Feldhamer, George A; Thompson, Bruce Carlyle; Chapman, Joseph A. (2003).
Wild mammals of North America
(2nd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press.
ISBN
0801874165
.
- Fick, Steven (2004).
The Canadian atlas: our nation, environment and people
. Douglas & McIntyre.
ISBN
0888507704
.
- French, Hugh M; Slaymaker, Olav (1993).
Canada's Cold Environments
. McGill-Queen's University Press.
ISBN
0-7735-0925-9
.
- Hudson, John C (2002).
Across this land: a regional geography of the United States and Canada
. Johns Hopkins University Press.
ISBN
0-8018-6567-0
.
- Nils, John Macoun; Kindberg, Conrad (1883).
"Catalogue of Canadian plants"
. Geological Survey of Canada.
External links
[
edit
]
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