Mountain in Argentina
Cerro Galan
is a
caldera
in the
Catamarca Province
of
Argentina
. It is one of the largest exposed calderas in the world and forms part of the
Central Volcanic Zone
of the
Andes
, one of the three volcanic belts found in South America. One of several major caldera systems in the Central Volcanic Zone, the mountain is grouped into the
Altiplano?Puna volcanic complex
.
Volcanic activity at Galan is the indirect consequence of the
subduction
of the
Nazca Plate
beneath the
South America Plate
, and involves the infiltration of melts into the
crust
and the formation of secondary
magmas
which after storage in the crust give rise to the
dacitic
to
rhyodacitic
rocks erupted by the volcano.
Galan was active between 5.6 and 4.51 million years ago, when it generated a number of
ignimbrites
known as the Toconquis group which crop out mainly west of the caldera. The largest eruption of Galan was 2.08 ± 0.02 million years ago and was the source of the Galan ignimbrite, which covered the surroundings of the caldera with volcanic material. The volume of this ignimbrite has been estimated to be about 650 cubic kilometres (160 cu mi); after this eruption much smaller ignimbrite eruptions took place and presently two
hot springs
are active in the caldera.
Geography and geomorphology
[
edit
]
The Galan
caldera
lies in the northwestern
Catamarca Province
of Argentina and was discovered in 1975 in a remote region of the Andes,
using satellite images.
The town of
Antofagasta de la Sierra
lies west-southwest of the Galan caldera,
Tacuil
is almost due northeast from the caldera and
El Penon
southwest of the volcano.
The caldera is difficult to access.
An
Inka
tambo
was situated at Laguna Diamante,
[7]
[8]
and an important prehistoric travel route passed through the caldera.
Sacrificial offers were given on the summit of Galan.
[10]
Galan is part of the
Central Volcanic Zone
of the Andes,
which lies on the western margin of South America,
where the
Nazca Plate
subducts
beneath the
South America Plate
. There are about 50 volcanoes with recent activity in the Central Volcanic Zone, and additional volcanoes exist in the
Northern Volcanic Zone
and the
Southern Volcanic Zone
, two other volcanic belts north and south.
The
volcanic arc
runs along the borders between Bolivia and Argentina with Chile, and behind the volcanic arc lies a chain of
silicic
[a]
volcanoes, of which Galan is a southern member.
The whole region has been subject to substantial
ignimbrite
-forming volcanism with many eruptions producing volumes of rock larger than 100 cubic kilometres (24 cu mi), although the actual vents often are only visible from space imagery.
Many vents cluster in an area known as the
Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex
which occupies a surface of about 70,000 square kilometres (27,000 sq mi)
approximately 200 kilometres (120 mi) north of Galan,
and which includes the large calderas of
La Pacana
,
Cerro Guacha
,
Pastos Grandes
and
Cerro Panizos
as well as more recent
geothermal
systems.
This volcanism appears to be a surface expression of a
pluton
,
and at depths of 17?19 kilometres (11?12 mi) beneath the Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex electrical, gravity and seismic tomography data have localized a structure of partially molten rock called the "Altiplano Puna Magma Body".
[b]
Volcanism in this "back" region may not be directly related to subduction processes despite the region itself being close to a
subducting
margin.
The Galan caldera lies on the eastern margin of the Andes, where the
Sierras Pampeanas
begin.
The region is characterized by the
Puna
, a high
plateau
similar to
Tibet
in Asia.
Local
[
edit
]
Galan is a caldera with topographic dimensions of 38 by 26 kilometres (24 mi × 16 mi), of which about 26 by 18 kilometres (16 mi × 11 mi) are part of the caldera proper.
Such dimensions make Galan one of the biggest calderas on Earth;
it has been described as a
supervolcano
.
The floor of the caldera reaches an elevation of 4,500 metres (14,800 ft)
or about 4,600 metres (15,100 ft),
and the whole caldera has an elliptical shape
extending in the north?south direction.
Only the western margin of the caldera structure appears to be a true caldera margin, however,
with different landforms forming the rest of the caldera walls
and the actual collapse caldera covering only a portion of the topographic caldera expression;
the latter has been defined to be a volcano-tectonic depression.
The caldera contains a
resurgent dome
,
[34]
whose highest point
in the
frost-shattered
Galan massif
reaches an elevation of about 5,912 metres (19,396 ft)
[37]
-6,100 metres (20,000 ft).
Seismic tomography
has identified a slow-speed anomaly beneath Galan, which has a volume of about 22,000 cubic kilometres (5,300 cu mi) and is considered to be a magma reservoir of the volcano.
[38]
Summits along the caldera margin include Cerro Aguas Calientes (a lava dome
) to the north, Cerro Leon Muerto to the southeast, Cerro Pabellon to the southwest and Cerro Toconquis to the northwest.
On the western rim, elevations of 5,200 metres (17,100 ft) are reached.
Younger volcanoes have developed on the western and northern rim of the Galan caldera.
Hydrology
[
edit
]
The caldera contains a 7 by 3 kilometres (4.3 mi × 1.9 mi) lake
in its southwestern corner,
which is known as Laguna Diamante
and may formerly have occupied much of the caldera.
[42]
Laguna Diamante has gained attention among scientists for the extreme environmental conditions that life within the lake has to withstand, including high
arsenic
contents of the waters and high
insolation
with
ultraviolet radiation
.
[43]
[44]
The water is hyper-alkaline and five times as salty as the sea but supports microorganisms which form
microbial mats
and provide food for a colony of
flamingos
.
[43]
Tube-shaped
microbialites
have also been reported.
[37]
A smaller lake known as Laguna Pabellon lies just south of Laguna Diamante. North of the resurgent dome, the Rio Aguas Calientes drains the caldera northward, while east of it the Rio Leon Muerto runs eastward out of the caldera.
Rivers in the caldera and neighbourhood display
river terraces
which may reflect pre-caldera formation uplift of the terrain and uplift associated with the resurgent dome.
These drainages eventually converge in the Rio de Los Patos and end into the
Salar del Hombre Muerto
north of Galan.
[46]
[47]
The high Cerro Galan intercepts moisture transported from east, thus nourishing the Rio de Los Patos in a region where long permanent watercourses are unusual.
The western flanks of the caldera drain into the Antofagasta de la Sierra valley through a number of drainages such as Rio Punilla, Rio Toconquis, Rio Miriguaca, Rio Las Pitas; the waters eventually end into the Laguna Antofagasta south of Antofagasta de la Sierra.
[49]
Two
hot springs
are found within the caldera, the first close to its northern end and the second on the southwestern foot of the resurgent dome,
both emitting water with temperatures of about 56?85 °C (133?185 °F).
[51]
The first one is known as the Aguas Calientes
hydrothermal
spring and features deposits of
tufa
and boiling water.
[52]
Another geothermal system is known as La Colcha and includes
fumaroles
as well as boiling water and
sinter
deposits; it has been prospected for the possibility of
geothermal power
generation.
[53]
Geology
[
edit
]
The
basement
beneath the caldera consists of 600?365 million years old
metamorphic
and sedimentary rocks of
Precambrian
to
Paleozoic
age.
These include
intrusions
of
granitoid
character and are overlain with
Paleozoic
marine sediments.
Ordovician
units are also present
and form sediment layers up to 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) thick.
Basements outcrops occur in the northeastern margin of the caldera.
About 14.5 million years ago volcanic activity started in the region, first west of Galan but by 7 million years ago it shifted to the future caldera, forming the Cerro Colorado, Pabellon and Cerro Toconquis
composite volcanoes
on its future western rim.
The more westerly centres are today represented by eroded volcanoes.
Since about 6.6 million years ago the volcanic activity produced rocks of both mafic
[c]
and silicic compositions.
The increase of volcanic activity has been attributed to the steepening of the
Nazca Plate
slab
which allowed
mantle
material to penetrate into the space between the lower
crust
and the slab.
North of 21° degrees southern latitude ignimbritic volcanism started earlier, generating the Altos de Pica and Oxaya
formations
.
Mafic
volcanism occurred south and west of Galan both before its large eruption and afterwards, in the valley of
Antofagasta de la Sierra
and may have continued to less than ten thousand years ago.
The positions of the exact
vents
are controlled by recent
fault
systems in the region.
Since about 10 million years ago, the area has been subject to
reverse faulting
which has disrupted the basement along north?south lines,
forming a
rift valley
that also stretches from north to south.
The magma erupted by the Galan system was likewise channelled along such fault systems,
and neighbouring volcanoes were similarly influenced by them;
the fault systems at Galan proper are known as the Diablillos-Galan faults.
Another major
lineament
in the area is the Archibarca lineament, which is formed by a
strike-slip fault
that extends from the northwest to the southeast in the region
and which intersects the Diablillos-Galan faults at the location of the caldera.
Composition
[
edit
]
Galan has erupted mainly
potassium
-rich
dacitic
to
rhyolitic
rocks that are often called
rhyodacitic
,
and which reflect a
calc-alkaline
suite.
Each ignimbrite has usually a uniform composition but there is some variation between individual ignimbrites;
for example older rocks contain
amphibole
and younger rocks instead
sanidine
.
[69]
Minerals contained in the eruption products include
allanite
,
apatite
,
biotite
,
hornblende
,
ilmenite
,
magnetite
,
orthopyroxene
,
plagioclase
,
quartz
,
sanidine
and
zircon
.
Hydrothermal
alteration has left
calcite
in some rocks.
Trace element patterns are distinct in the Galan ignimbrite in comparison to the Toconquis Group rocks.
The formation of the Galan magma has been explained with melting of lower
crustal
rocks under the influence of rising
basaltic
magmas that supplied the heat needed for the melting processes, and which also directly contributed to magma formation through mixing events.
Further
metasomatism
in the crust and
fractional crystallization
processes completed the magma genesis process.
Probably under the influence of larger scale tectonics, magma that accumulated into a mid-crustal mush zone is eventually transferred into shallow
magma chambers
at depths of 8?4 kilometres (5.0?2.5 mi);
recharge events where deep magma entered the shallow magma bodies may have triggered eruptions at Galan.
After eruption, a leftover
pluton
would have been generated inside the crust.
Based on the presence of two separate populations of
pumice
in the Galan ignimbrite it has been inferred that there were two types of magma in the magmatic system during the Galan eruption, a larger volume of so-called "white" magma and a "grey" magma which was injected into the "white" magma pool and eventually rose above the latter.
More generally, it appears that before each eruption there were two batches of magma present beneath the volcano
which however were very similar owing perhaps to a homogenization process that took place deep in the crust.
Before the eruption, the magma is estimated to have been 790?820 °C (1,450?1,510 °F) hot.
[69]
Climate and biology
[
edit
]
Galan lies in a region of arid climate, with annual precipitation amounting to about 65 millimetres per year (2.6 in/year).
Frosts
occur year-round.
Climate data are known for Salar de Hombre Muerto north of Galan; average temperatures there are 8?23 °C (46?73 °F) in summer and winter, respectively. Precipitation occurs mostly during the summer months.
[46]
At high elevations there is no vegetation.
Between 3,900?5,000 metres (12,800?16,400 ft) elevation, vegetation consists of high altitude
steppe
dominated by
Poaceae
(grasses) such as
Festuca
(fescue) and
Stipa
(feather grass). At lower altitudes,
wetlands
have their own vegetation.
[49]
In sheltered areas birds like ducks and flamingos can be observed.
[52]
Eruptive history
[
edit
]
Volcanic activity at Galan occurred in two separate stages,
which are separated by an erosional unconformity
during which the ignimbrite apron of the Toconquis group was incised by deep valleys.
Mechanistically, the onset of the eruptions has been explained with
delamination
events during which parts of the lower crust broke off,
asthenospheric
material replaced the crust lost by delamination and basaltic magmas penetrated the remaining crust.
These stages have left an ignimbrite plateau that surrounds the caldera
except on its southern side, and which is noticeable on satellite images.
It covers a surface area of about 3,500 square kilometres (1,400 sq mi)
and is the largest ignimbrite system in the
Puna
plateau.
Toconquis Group
[
edit
]
The first stage occurred between 5.60 and 4.51 million years ago and consisted of the eruption of large
ignimbrites
such as the
Blanco,
Cueva Negra,
several Merihuaca ignimbrites
and Real Grande ignimbrite as well as
lava domes
, all from north?south trending fractures,
forming the
Toconquis Group
(formerly called the Toconquis
Formation
).
The Real Grande and Cueva Negra ignimbrites were considered to be homologous, as are the easterly Leon Muerto and several Merihuaca ignimbrites,
but it was later found that the Leon Muerto and Merihuaca ignimbrites probably were erupted from distinct vent systems and have distinct compositions,
and the Cueva Negra ignimbrite was later considered to be a separate formation from the other Toconquis group ignimbrites.
The later classifications established a 6.5 ? 5.5 million-year-old Blanco/Merihuaca ignimbrites, 4.8 million-year-old Pitas, 4.7 million-year-old Real Grande, 4.5 million-year-old Vega and 3.8 million-year-old Cueva Negra ignimbrite.
The formation is fairly heterogeneous, with some ignimbrites separated by sharp contacts and the degree of welding and crystal content of
pumices
varies from one ignimbrite to the other.
Generally the ignimbrites are rich in crystals and pumice, are unwelded and contain few flow structures,
with the exception of the welded Cueva Negra ignimbrite.
Some ignimbrite eruptions were preceded by the formation of
Plinian
eruption columns that generated ash fallout, and there is evidence for pulsating flow in the ignimbrites.
On the northern side of the Galan complex, ignimbrites extend up to 80 kilometres (50 mi) away from the caldera and may have reached even larger distances prior to erosion,
and they have thicknesses of 300 metres (980 ft).
The ignimbrites have a total volume of about 650 cubic kilometres (160 cu mi), with the Real Grande ignimbrite comprising over half of its volume.
[34]
The volume of the individual ignimbrites increases the younger they are
with the initial Blanco and Merihuaca ignimbrites having a volume of about 70 cubic kilometres (17 cu mi).
The last eruption may have generated a caldera that was later obliterated.
Emission of
lava flows
occurred during the Toconquis phase as well,
in general there was vigorous volcanic activity between the eruptions that formed the main ignimbrites.
The Cueva Negra ignimbrite was emplaced after the Toconquis Group, and small lava domes and pyroclastic flows continued to be erupted until the Galan ignimbrite proper.
The magmatic system shallowed during this time, resulting in composition changes of the erupted ignimbrites
[98]
and a general increase of elevations in the region.
[99]
Galan ignimbrite
[
edit
]
2.08 ± 0.02 million years ago
[34]
the
rhyodacitic
Galan ignimbrite proper was emplaced. Aside from a facies that remained inside the caldera and is minimally 1.4 kilometres (0.87 mi) thick,
ignimbrites extend outside of the caldera to distances of 80 kilometres (50 mi)
but with an average runout distance of 40 square kilometres (15 sq mi)
and have thicknesses of 200?10 metres (656?33 ft);
closer to the caldera it has been largely eroded away and there are more complete exposures farther away from Galan.
A contrary view is that the Galan ignimbrite was largely eroded only on its northern side by wind action, forming
yardangs
.
The resurgent dome consists of Galan ignimbrite material, along with basement rocks.
The "Toba Dacitica" 270 kilometres (170 mi) outcrop away from the volcano was once considered part of the Galan eruption but later compositional differences were found.
The Galan ignimbrite is fairly homogeneous and has a high crystal content;
overall it appears that the eruption commenced and reached large dimensions fairly quickly without leaving time for an
eruption column
or distinct flow units to form, except in some places.
Conversely, the produced flows were relatively slow flows
that had little capacity to pass above topographic obstacles or to move rocks around.
It nevertheless spread over large distances, since the topography of the region had been flattened by the previous Toconquis ignimbrites,
and was still hot by the time it came to a standstill.
Pumice
is scarce and usually present in only small fragments, and
lithic
fragments are also uncommon except at the bases of the deposit.
Fiamme
structures on the other hand are fairly common especially where the ignimbrite crossed river valleys. The ignimbrite displays varying degrees of welding but has often spectacular columnar joints.
At first it was assumed that this ignimbrite crops out over a surface of 7,500 square kilometres (2,900 sq mi) but later it was found that it covers a surface closer to 2,400 square kilometres (930 sq mi).
Between the intracaldera ignimbrite, the parts of the ignimbrite that extend away from the caldera and outcrops at large distance, the volume is about 650 cubic kilometres (160 cu mi),
down from earlier estimated of volumes exceeding 1,000 cubic kilometres (240 cu mi)
but the Galan eruption is still one of the biggest known volcanic eruptions
and the volcano has produced almost half of the volume of ignimbrites in the southern Puna.
The Galan ignimbrite is the largest ignimbrite erupted by this centre;
there is a tendency of the volume of individual ignimbrites to increase as the volcanoes grow younger, not only at Galan but also at other Puna ignimbrite centres, and this may be a consequence of progressive changes in the crust.
Such giant eruptions have not been observed during historical time and are considered to be among the most dangerous volcanic phenomena known.
Kay
et al.
proposed that the Galan ignimbrite consisted of three separate units, an intracaldera one emplaced 2.13 million years ago and two extracaldera ones 2.09 and 2.06 million years ago.
Post-Galan volcanism
[
edit
]
The main Galan caldera formed during the Galan ignimbrite eruption,
and it is possible that the collapse of the
magma chamber
roof actually started the eruption.
Later it was found that a trapdoor collapse is a more plausible interpretation of the caldera structure
and that the caldera appears to be much smaller than its present-day topographic expression.
Most likely a lake formed within the caldera after its eruption.
Later volcanic activity resulted in lava flows of dacitic composition being erupted along the ring fault of the caldera, as well as the formation of the resurgent dome by about 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) uplift along the eastern caldera margin fault.
This uplift encompasses both Galan ignimbrite rocks but also parts of the basement, the latter especially in the southern part of the dome.
Post-caldera volcanism occurred on the northern margin of the caldera 2.01 ± 0.28 million years ago,
and several small ignimbrites were emplaced after the main Galan eruption until less than 2 million years ago.
These ignimbrites have similar compositions to the Galan ignimbrite
[117]
and were formed from magma left over by the main Galan eruption.
[118]
The onset of resurgence within the caldera may have been triggered by the same magma that is responsible for the post-caldera volcanism along the eastern caldera rims.
The post-caldera volcanic systems appear to be rather ill-defined, however. The most recent activity was of tectonic nature and consists of movements along the faults and mafic volcanism ("Incahuasi
Formation
"
) farther west.
Seismic tomography
indicates that there is still a melt zone under Galan,
the "Cerro Galan Mush Body".
An
earthquake swarm
was recorded on the 25 January 2009 mainly under the resurgent dome, and may reflect hydrothermal or magmatic activity.
[122]
See also
[
edit
]
Notes
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
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"Cerro Galan"
.
Global Volcanism Program
.
Smithsonian Institution
. Retrieved
10 October
2018
.
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.
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10.4067/S0718-68942017005000201
.
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11336/63253
.
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186178862
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- ^
OLIVERA, DANIEL ENZO; TCHILINGUIRIAN, PABLO; CASANOVA MENENDEZ, MARTIN TOMAS; PEREZ, MARTINA INES; GRANT, JENNIFER; GENTILE, MARIA CECILIA; CLUR, ALEJO; DE ZELA, PAULA MIRANDA (2023).
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Perez, Martina Ines; Clur, Alejo Adrian; Zela, Paula Miranda De; Olivera, Daniel; Perez, Martina Ines; Clur, Alejo Adrian; Zela, Paula Miranda De; Olivera, Daniel (May 2023).
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.
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Chmielowski, Josef; Zandt, George; Haberland, Christian (15 March 1999).
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.
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a
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c
Grocke, Andrews & de Silva 2017
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a
b
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.
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a
b
Belluscio, Ana (2 April 2010).
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.
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.
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.
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:
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.
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.
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Vinante, D.; Alonso, R. N. (2006).
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.
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. Archived from
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.
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a
b
Grant, Jennifer (2016).
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.
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- ^
Paoli, Hector (September 2002).
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.
- ^
a
b
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.
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. Retrieved
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.
- ^
Conde Serra, Alejandro (2016).
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.
- ^
Pinti, Daniele (2011), "Mafic and Felsic",
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ISBN
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- ^
a
b
Grocke, Andrews & de Silva 2017
, p. 298.
- ^
Grocke, Andrews & de Silva 2017
, p. 305,306.
- ^
Grocke, Andrews & de Silva 2017
, p. 307.
- ^
Grocke, Andrews & de Silva 2017
, p. 299.
- ^
Grocke, Andrews & de Silva 2017
, p. 309.
- ^
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Further reading
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edit
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|
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Northern Volcanic Zone
(6° N ? 3° S)
| |
---|
Central Volcanic Zone
(14°?27° S)
| |
---|
Southern Volcanic Zone
(33°?46° S)
| |
---|
Austral Volcanic Zone
(49°?55° S)
| |
---|
Note: volcanoes are ordered by latitude from north to south
|