Japanese author, teacher, and entrepreneur (1835?1901)
Fukuzawa Yukichi
福澤諭吉
|
---|
![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Fukuzawa_Yukichi_1891.jpg/200px-Fukuzawa_Yukichi_1891.jpg) Fukuzawa in 1891
|
Born
| (
1835-01-10
)
January 10, 1835
|
---|
Died
| February 3, 1901
(1901-02-03)
(aged 66)
|
---|
Other names
| Shi-I (子圍)
Sanjy?-ikkoku-jin (三十一谷人)
|
---|
Spouse
| Kin Toki
|
---|
Fukuzawa Yukichi
(
福澤 諭吉
, January 10, 1835 ? February 3, 1901)
was a Japanese educator, philosopher, writer, entrepreneur and
samurai
who founded
Keio University
, the newspaper
Jiji-Shinp?
[
jp
]
, and the
Institute for Study of Infectious Diseases
.
Fukuzawa was an early advocate for reform in
Japan
. His ideas about the organization of government and the structure of social institutions made a lasting impression on a rapidly changing Japan during the
Meiji period
. He appears on the current 10,000-
Japanese yen
banknote.
Early life
[
edit
]
Monument of Fukuzawa Yukichi's birthplace, the
Nakatsu Domain
warehouse-mansion, in
Hotarumachi
,
Fukushima-ku, Osaka
Fukuzawa Yukichi was born into an impoverished low-ranking
samurai
(military nobility) family of the Okudaira Clan of
Nakatsu Domain
(present-day
?ita
,
Kyushu
) in 1835. His family lived in
Osaka
, the main trading center for Japan at the time.
[1]
His family was poor following the early death of his father, who was also a
Confucian
scholar. At the age of 5 he started
Han learning
, and by the time he turned 14, he had studied major writings such as the
Analects
,
Tao Te Ching
,
Zuo Zhuan
and
Zhuangzi
.
[2]
Fukuzawa was greatly influenced by his lifelong teacher, Sh?zan Shiraishi, who was a scholar of
Confucianism
and
Han learning
. Yukichi turned 19 in 1854, shortly after the
Perry Expedition
's arrival in Japan marking the beginning of the opening of Japan to trade via
Gunboat diplomacy
. As the family patriarch Fukuzawa's brother asked him to travel to
Nagasaki
, where the
Dutch
colony at
Dejima
was located, in order to enter a school of Dutch studies
(
rangaku
).
He instructed Yukichi to learn
Dutch
so that he might study European cannon designs and
gunnery
.
Sailors of the
Kanrin Maru
, members of the
Japanese Embassy to the United States (1860)
. Fukuzawa Yukichi sits on the right.
Fukuzawa Yukichi (posing with the photographer's twelve year old daughter, Theodora Alice Shew) in San Francisco, 1860
Fukuzawa’s early life consisted of the dull and backbreaking work typical of a lower-level samurai in Japan during the
Tokugawa period
.
[2]
Although Fukuzawa did travel to Nagasaki, his stay was brief as he quickly began to outshine his host in Nagasaki, Okudaira Iki. Okudaira planned to get rid of Fukuzawa by writing a letter saying that Fukuzawa's mother was ill. Seeing through the fake letter, Fukuzawa planned to travel to
Edo
and continue his studies there, since he would be unable to do so in his home domain of
Nakatsu
. However, upon his return to Osaka, his brother persuaded him to stay and enroll at the
Tekijuku
school run by physician and
rangaku
scholar
Ogata K?an
.
[2]
Fukuzawa studied at Tekijuku for three years and became fully proficient in the Dutch language. In 1858, he was appointed the official Dutch teacher of
Nakatsu
, and was sent to Edo to teach the family's
vassals
there.
The following year, Japan opened up three of its ports to American and European ships, and Fukuzawa, intrigued with
Western civilization
, traveled to
Kanagawa
to see them. When he arrived, he discovered that virtually all of the European merchants there were speaking
English
rather than Dutch. He then began to study English, but at that time, English-Japanese interpreters were rare and dictionaries nonexistent, so his studies were slow.
In 1859, the
Tokugawa shogunate
sent
their first diplomatic mission to the United States
. Fukuzawa volunteered his services to Admiral
Kimura Yoshitake
. Kimura's ship, the
Kanrin Maru
, arrived in
San Francisco, California
, in 1860. The delegation stayed in the city for a month, during which time Fukuzawa had himself photographed with an American girl, and also found a
Webster's Dictionary
, from which he began serious study of the English language.
Political movements
[
edit
]
Fukuzawa Yukichi was a member of the
Japanese Embassy to the United States (1860)
(Washington shipyard).
Fukuzawa posing in
Utrecht
as part of the
First Japanese Embassy to Europe
, 1862
Upon his return in 1860, Fukuzawa became an official translator for the
Tokugawa shogunate
. Shortly afterwards he brought out his first publication, an English-Japanese
dictionary
which he called "Kaei Ts?go" (translated from a
Chinese
-English dictionary) which was a beginning for his series of later books. In 1862, he visited
Europe
as one of the two English translators in the
First Japanese Embassy to Europe
. During its year in Europe, the Embassy conducted
negotiations
with
France
,
England
, the
Netherlands
,
Prussia
, and finally
Russia
. In Russia, the embassy attempted unsuccessfully to negotiate for the southern end of
Sakhalin
(in Japanese
Karafuto
), a long-standing source of dispute between the two countries.
The information collected during these travels resulted in his famous work
Seiy? Jij?
(
西洋事情
,
Things western
[
Wikidata
]
), which he published in ten volumes in 1867, 1868 and 1870. The books describe western culture and institutions in simple, easy to understand terms, and they became immediate best-sellers. Fukuzawa was soon regarded as the foremost expert on western civilization, leading him to conclude that his mission in life was to educate his countrymen in new ways of thinking in order to enable Japan to resist European
imperialism
.
[
citation needed
]
In 1868 he changed the name of the school he had established to teach Dutch to
Keio Gijuku
, and from then on devoted all his time to education. He also added
Public speaking
to the educational system's curriculum.
[2]
While Kei?'s initial identity was that of a private school of Western studies (Keio-gijuku), it expanded and established its first university faculty in 1890. Under the name
Keio-Gijuku University
, it became a leader in Japanese higher education.
Fukuzawa was also a strong advocate for
women’s rights
. He often spoke up in favor of equality between husbands and wives, the education of girls as well as boys, and the equal love of daughters and sons. At the same time, he called attention to harmful practices such as women’s inability to own property in their own name and the familial distress that took place when married men took mistresses. However, even Fukuzawa was not willing to propose completely equal rights for men and women; only for husbands and wives. He also stated in his 1899 book
New Greater Learning for Women
that a good marriage was always the best outcome for a young woman, and according to some of Fukuzawa's personal letters, he discouraged his friends from sending their daughters on to higher education so that they would not become less desirable marriage candidates.
[2]
While some of Yukichi’s other proposed reforms, such as education reforms, found an eager audience, his ideas about women received a less enthusiastic reception.
[
citation needed
]
Death
[
edit
]
After suffering a stroke on January 25, 1901, Fukuzawa Yukichi died on February 3. He was buried at
Zenpuku-ji
, in the
Azabu
area of Tokyo.
[2]
Alumni of Keio-Gijuku University hold a ceremony there every year on February 3.
Works
[
edit
]
Fukuzawa's writings may have been the foremost of the
Edo period
and
Meiji period
. They played a large role in the introduction of Western culture into Japan.
English-Japanese Dictionary
[
edit
]
In 1860, he published
English-Japanese Dictionary
("Z?tei Kaei Ts?go"). It was his first publication. He bought
English-Chinese Dictionary
("Kaei Ts?go") in San Francisco in 1860. He translated it to Japanese and he added the Japanese translations to the original textbook. In his book, he invented the new
Japanese characters
VU (
ヴ
) to represent the pronunciation of VU, and VA (
?
) to represent the pronunciation of VA. For example, the name
Beethoven
is written as
ベ?ト?
ヴ
ェン
in modern Japanese.
All the Countries of the World, for Children Written in Verse
[
edit
]
His famous textbook
Sekai Kunizukushi
("All the Countries of the World, for Children Written in Verse", 1869) became a best seller and was used as an official school textbook. His inspiration for writing the books came when he tried to teach world geography to his sons. At the time there were no textbooks on the subject, so he decided to write one himself. He started by buying a few Japanese geography books for children, named
Miyakoji
("City roads") and
Edo h?gaku
("Tokyo maps"), and practiced reading them aloud. He then wrote
Sekai Kunizukushi
in six volumes in the same lyrical style. The first volume covered Asia, the second Africa, the third Europe, the fourth South America, and the fifth both North America and Australia. The sixth volume was an appendix that gave an introduction to world geography.
An Encouragement of Learning
[
edit
]
First edition of "
An Encouragement of Learning
" (1872), written by Fukuzawa Yukichi and Obata Tokujir?
Influenced by the 1835 and 1856 editions of
Elements of Moral Science
by
Brown University
President
Francis Wayland
,
[3]
from 1872-76 Fukuzawa published 17 volumes of
Gakumon no Susume
(
?問のすすめ
,
An Encouragement of Learning
[
Wikidata
]
or more idiomatically "On Studying"
[4]
). Through these writings, Fukuzawa develops his views on the importance of equality of opportunity as a principle, explores his understanding of the principle, and stresses that education is the key to taking best advantage of
the principle and achieving greatness.
[
citation needed
]
For these reasons, he was an avid supporter of public schools and believed in a firm mental foundation through learning and studiousness.
[
citation needed
]
Fukuzawa also advocated in these writings his most lasting motto, "national independence through personal independence."
[5]
By creating a self-determining social morality for a Japan still reeling from both the political upheavals wrought by the unwanted end to its isolationism and the cultural upheavals caused by the inundation of so much novelty in products, methods, and ideas, Fukuzawa hoped to instill a sense of personal strength among the people of Japan so they could build a nation to rival all others.
[
citation needed
]
To his understanding, Western nations had become more powerful than other regions because their societies fostered
education
,
individualism
(independence),
competition
and exchange of ideas.
[
citation needed
]
An Outline of a Theory of Civilization
[
edit
]
First edition of
An Outline of a Theory of Civilization
(1875)
Fukuzawa published many influential essays and critical works. A particularly prominent example is
Bunmeiron no Gairyaku
(
文明論之?略
,
An Outline of a Theory of Civilization
[
Wikidata
]
[6]
) published in 1875, in which he details his own theory of civilization. It was influenced by
Histoire de la civilisation en Europe
(1828; Eng. trans in 1846) by
Francois Guizot
and
History of Civilization in England
(1872?1873, 2nd London ed.) by
Henry Thomas Buckle
. According to Fukuzawa, civilization is relative to time and circumstance, as well in comparison. For example, at the time
China
was relatively civilized in comparison to some
African
colonies, and European nations were the most civilized of all.
Colleagues in the
Meirokusha
intellectual society shared many of Fukuzawa's views, which he published in his contributions to
Meiroku zasshi
(Meiji Six Magazine), a scholarly journal he helped publish. In his books and journals, he often wrote about the word "civilization" and what it meant. He advocated a move toward "civilization", by which he meant material and spiritual well-being, which elevated human life to a "higher plane". Because material and spiritual well-being corresponded to knowledge and "virtue", to "move toward civilization" was to advance and pursue knowledge and virtue themselves. He contended that people could find the answer to their life or their present situation from "civilization." Furthermore, the difference between the weak and the powerful and large and small was just a matter of difference between their knowledge and education.
He argued that Japan should not import guns and materials. Instead it should support the acquisition of knowledge, which would eventually take care of the material necessities. He talked of the Japanese concept of being practical or pragmatic (
??
,
jitsugaku
) and the building of things that are basic and useful to other people. In short, to Fukuzawa, "civilization" essentially meant the furthering of knowledge and education.
Legacy
[
edit
]
Fukuzawa Yukichi
Fukuzawa's most important contribution to the reformation effort, though, came in the form of a newspaper called
Jiji Shinp?
[
Wikidata
]
(
時事新報
, "Current Events"), which he started in 1882, after being prompted by
Inoue Kaoru
,
?kuma Shigenobu
, and
It? Hirobumi
to establish a strong influence among the people, and in particular to transmit to the public the government's views on the projected
national assembly
, and as reforms began, Fukuzawa, whose fame was already unquestionable, began production of
Jiji Shinpo
, which received wide circulation, encouraging the people to enlighten themselves and to adopt a moderate political attitude towards the change that was being engineered within the social and political structures of Japan. He translated many books and journals into Japanese on a wide variety of subjects, including
chemistry
, the
arts
,
military
and
society
, and published many books (in multiple volumes) and journals himself describing Western society, his own
philosophy
and change, etc.
Fukuzawa appears on the 10,000
yen
banknote engraved by
Oshikiri Katsuz?
.
Fukuzawa was one of the most influential people ever that helped Japan modernize into the country it is today. He never accepted any high position and remained a normal Japanese citizen for his whole life. By the time of his death, he was revered as one of the founders of modern Japan. All of his work was written and was released at a critical juncture in the Japanese society and uncertainty for the Japanese people about their future after the signing of the
Unequal treaties
, their realization in the weakness of the Japanese government at the time (Tokugawa Shogunate) and its inability to repel the American and European influence. It should also be noted that there were bands of
samurai
that forcefully opposed the Americans and Europeans and their friends through murder and destruction. Fukuzawa was in danger of his life as a samurai group killed one of his colleagues for advocating policies like those of Fukuzawa. Fukuzawa wrote at a time when the Japanese people were undecided on whether they should be bitter about the American and European forced treaties and imperialism, or to understand the West and move forward. Fukuzawa greatly aided the ultimate success of the pro-modernization forces.
Fukuzawa appears on the current 10,000-
yen
banknote and has been compared to
Benjamin Franklin
in the
United States
. Franklin appears on the similarly-valued
$100 bill
. Although all other figures appearing on Japanese banknotes changed when the recent redesign was released, Fukuzawa remained on the 10,000-yen note.
Fukuzawa Yukichi was a firm believer that Western education surpassed Japan's. However, he did not like the idea of parliamentary debates. As early as 1860, Fukuzawa Yukichi traveled to
Europe
and the
United States
. He believed that the problem in Japan was the undervalued mathematics and science.
[
citation needed
]
Also, these suffered from a "lack of the idea of independence". The Japanese conservatives were not happy about Fukuzawa's view of Western education. Since he was a family friend of conservatives, he took their stand to heart. Fukuzawa later came to state that he went a little too far.
[7]
One word sums up his entire theme and that is "independence". Fukuzawa Yukichi believed that national independence was the framework to society in the West. However, to achieve this independence, as well as personal independence, Fukuzawa advocated Western learning. He believed that public virtue would increase as people became more educated.
[1]
Former Residence of Fukuzawa Yukichi
[
edit
]
Fukuzawa Yukichi's former residence in the city of
Nakatsu
in
?ita Prefecture
Fukuzawa Yukichi's childhood home in the Rusui-cho neighbourhood of the city of
Nakatsu
in
?ita Prefecture
still exists. It is located on the lower reaches of the Nakatsu River, almost due east of
Nakatsu Castle
(
33°36′26″N
131°11′27″E
/
33.60722°N 131.19083°E
/
33.60722; 131.19083
). Fukuzawa Yukichi was born in 1835 in the Nakatsu Domain warehouse in Osaka and the family returned to Nakatsu after his father's death when he was 18 months old. He lived in this house in Nakatsu until age 19. The structure is a typical samurai residence of the late Edo Period and is a one-story wooden, thatch roof building with two 6-
tatami
, one 8-
tatami
, and one 4.5
tatami
rooms. The north of the main building is a two-story
kura
storehouse with a tile roof. In 1971 this former residence and the ruins of a former residence across the street were designated as a
National Historic Site
.
[8]
[9]
The house and the adjacent Fukuzawa Yukichi Memorial Hall, which displays the original manuscript of
Gakaku no Susume
and Fukuzawa Yukichi's personal belongings, are the major tourist attractions of this city.
[10]
It is located approximately a 15-minute walk from
Nakatsu Station
on the
JR Kyushu
Nipp? Main Line
.
Bibliography
[
edit
]
Original Japanese books
[
edit
]
- English-Japanese dictionary
(?訂華英通語
Z?tei Kaei Ts?go
, 1860)
- Things western
(西洋事情
Seiy? Jij?
, 1866, 1868 and 1870)
- Rifle instruction book
(雷銃操法
Raijy? S?h?
, 1867)
- Guide to travel in the western world
(西洋旅案?
Seiy? Tabiannai
, 1867)
- Records of the eleven treaty countries
(?約十一?記
Jy?yaku Jy?ichi-kokki
, 1867)
- Western clothes, food, and housing
(西洋衣食住
Seiy? Isyokujy?
, 1867)
- Handbook for soldiers
(兵士?中便?
Heishi Kaicy? Binran
, 1868)
- Illustrated book of physical sciences
(訓蒙窮理?解
Kinm? Ky?ri Zukai
, 1868)
- Outline of the western art of war
(洋兵明鑑
Y?hei Meikan
, 1869)
- Pocket almanac of the world
(掌中万?一?
Sh?cy? Bankoku-Ichiran
, 1869)
- English parliament
(英?議事院談
Eikoku Gijiindan
, 1869)
- Sino-British diplomatic relations
(?英交際始末
Shin-ei Kosai-shimatsu
, 1869)
- All the countries of the world, for children written in verse
(世界??
Sekai Kunizukushi
, 1869)
- Daily lesson for children
(ひびのおしえ
Hibi no Oshie
, 1871) - These books were written for Fukuzawa's first son Ichitar? and second son Sutejir?.
- Book of reading and penmanship for children
(啓蒙手習の文
Keim? Tenarai-no-Fumi
, 1871)
- Encouragement of learning
(?問のす?め
Gakumon no Susume
, 1872?1876)
- Junior book of ethics with many tales from western lands
(童蒙?草
D?m? Oshie-Gusa
, 1872)
- Deformed girl
(かたわ娘
Katawa Musume
, 1872)
- Explanation of the new calendar
(改?弁
Kaireki-Ben
, 1873)
- Bookkeeping
(帳合之法
Ch?ai-no-H?
, 1873)
- Maps of Japan for children
(日本地?草紙
Nihon Chizu S?shi
, 1873)
- Elementary reader for children
(文字之?
Moji-no-Oshie
, 1873)
- How to hold a conference
(?議弁
Kaigi-Ben
, 1874)
- An Outline of a Theory of Civilization
(文明論之?略
Bunmeiron no Gairyaku
, 1875)
- Independence of the scholar's mind
(?者安心論
Gakusya Anshinron
, 1876)
- On the separation of powers
(分?論
Bunkenron
, 1877)
- Popular economics
(民間???
Minkan Keizairoku
, 1877)
- Collected essays of Fukuzawa
(福澤文集
Fukuzawa Bunsy?
, 1878)
- On currency
(通貨論
Ts?karon
, 1878)
- Popular discourse on people's rights
(通俗民?論
Ts?zoku Minkenron
, 1878)
- Popular discourse on national rights
(通俗??論
Ts?zoku Kokkenron
, 1878)
- Transition of people's way of thinking
(民情一新
Minjy? Isshin
, 1879)
- On the National Diet
(??論
Kokkairon
, 1879)
- Commentary on the current problems
(時事小言
Jiji Sh?gen
, 1881)
- On general trends of the times
(時事大勢論
Jiji Taiseiron
, 1882)
- On the imperial household
(帝室論
Teishitsuron
, 1882)
- On armament
(兵論
Heiron
, 1882)
- On moral training
(?育如何
Tokuiku-Ikan
, 1882)
- On the independence of learning
(?問之?立
Gakumon-no Dokuritsu
, 1883)
- On the national conscription
(全??兵論
Zenkoku Cy?heiron
, 1884)
- Popular discourse on foreign diplomacy
(通俗外交論
Ts?zoku Gaik?ron
, 1884)
- On Japanese womanhood
(日本婦人論
Nihon Fujinron
, 1885)
- On gentlemen's moral life
(士人?世論
Shijin Syoseiron
, 1885)
- On moral conduct
(品行論
Hink?ron
, 1885)
- On association of men and women
(男女交際論
Nannyo Kosairon
, 1886)
- On Japanese manhood
(日本男子論
Nihon Nanshiron
, 1888)
- On reverence for the Emperor
(尊王論
Sonn?ron
, 1888)
- Future of the Diet; Origin of the difficulty in the Diet; Word on the public security; On land tax
(??の前途
Kokkai-no Zento; Kokkai Nankyoku-no Yurai; Chian-Sy?gen; Chisoron
, 1892)
- On business
(?業論
Jitsugy?ron
, 1893)
- One hundred discourses of Fukuzawa
(福翁百話
Fuku? Hyakuwa
, 1897)
- Foreword to the collected works of Fukuzawa
(福澤全集?言
Fukuzawa Zensy? Cyogen
, 1897)
- Fukuzawa sensei's talk on the worldly life
(福澤先生浮世談
Fukuzawa Sensei Ukiyodan
, 1898)
- Discourses of study for success (修業立志編
Sy?gy? Rittishihen
, 1898)
- Autobiography of Fukuzawa Yukichi
(福翁自?
Fuku? Jiden
, 1899)
- Reproof of "the essential learning for women"; New essential learning for women
(女大?評論
Onnadaigaku Hy?ron
; 新女大?
Shin-Onnadaigaku
, 1899)
- More discourses of Fukuzawa
(福翁百余話
Fuku? Hyakuyowa
, 1901)
- Commentary on the national problems of 1877; Spirit of manly defiance
(明治十年丁丑公論
Meiji Jy?nen Teicy? K?ron
; 瘠我慢の?
Yasegaman-no Setsu
, 1901)
English translations
[
edit
]
- The Autobiography of Fukuzawa Yukichi
, Revised translation by
Eiichi Kiyooka
, with a foreword by
Carmen Blacker
, NY: Columbia University Press, 1980 [1966],
ISBN
978-0-231-08373-7
{{
citation
}}
: CS1 maint: others (
link
)
- The Autobiography of Fukuzawa Yukichi
, Revised translation by
Eiichi Kiyooka
, with a foreword by
Albert M. Craig
, NY: Columbia University Press, 2007,
ISBN
978-0-231-13987-8
{{
citation
}}
: CS1 maint: others (
link
)
- The Thought of Fukuzawa series
, (Paperback) Keio University Press
- vol.1
福澤諭吉 (2008),
An Outline of a Theory of Civilization
, Translation by
David A. Dilworth
,
G. Cameron Hurst, III
, Keio University Press,
ISBN
978-4-7664-1560-5
- vol.2
福澤諭吉 (2012),
An Encouragement of Learning
, Translation by David A. Dilworth, Keio University Press,
ISBN
978-4-7664-1684-8
- vol.3
福澤諭吉 (2017),
Fukuzawa Yukichi on Women and the Family
, Edited and with New and Revised Translations by
Helen Ballhatchet
, Keio University Press,
ISBN
978-4-7664-2414-0
- Vol.4
The Autobiography of Fukuzawa Yukichi
. Revised translation and with an introduction by Helen Ballhatchet.
See also
[
edit
]
Notes
[
edit
]
- ^
a
b
Nishikawa (1993)
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
Hopper, Helen M. (2005).
Fukuzawa Yukichi : from samurai to capitalist
. New York: Pearson/Longman.
ISBN
978-0321078025
.
OCLC
54694712
.
- ^
森田, 康夫 (1996).
福?諭吉と大坂
(in Japanese). 和泉書院. p. 126.
ISBN
978-4-87088-820-3
.
ウェ?ランドの『モラル?サイヤンス』( F.Wayland : The Element of Moral Science)の影響は、その意味からも福?思想にとって決定的意義をもっていた。
- ^
Dilworth (2012)
- ^
Metraux, Daniel A. (2011).
"Democratic Trends in Meiji Japan"
.
Association for Asian Studies
. Retrieved
2024-01-12
.
- ^
Dilworth & Hurst (2008)
- ^
Adas, Stearns & Schwartz (1993
, p. 37).
- ^
Isomura, Yukio; Sakai, Hideya (2012).
(?指定史跡事典) National Historic Site Encyclopedia
. ?生社.
ISBN
978-4311750403
.
(in Japanese)
- ^
"福?諭吉?居"
(in Japanese).
Agency for Cultural Affairs
. Retrieved
August 20,
2020
.
- ^
Adas, Stearns & Schwartz (1993
, p. 36).
References
[
edit
]
- Adas, Michael
;
Stearns, Peter
;
Schwartz, Stuart
(1993),
Turbulent Passage: A Global History of the Twentieth Century
, Longman Publishing Group,
ISBN
978-0-06-501039-8
- Nishikawa, Shunsaku
[in Japanese]
(1993),
"Fukuzawa Yukichi"
(PDF)
,
Prospects: The Quarterly Review of Comparative Education
,
XXIII
(3/4): 493?506,
doi
:
10.1007/BF02195131
,
S2CID
145275971
, archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 2015-09-24
-
French version
(
Archive
)
Further reading
[
edit
]
- De Lange, William (2023).
A History of Japanese Journalism: State of Affairs and Affairs of State
. Toyo Press.
ISBN
978-94-92722-393
.
- Hiruta, Kei (2023). "
Fukuzawa Yukichi's Liberal Nationalism
".
American Political Science Review
- Lu, David John
(2005),
Japan: A Documentary History: The Dawn of History to the Late Tokugawa Period
, M.E. Sharpe,
ISBN
978-1-56324-907-5
- Kitaoka, Shin-ichi
(2017),
Self-Respect and Independence of Mind: The Challenge of Fukuzawa Yukichi
, JAPAN LIBRARY, translated by Vardaman, James M., Tokyo: Japan Publishing Industry Foundation for Culture (JPIC),
ISBN
978-4-916055-62-0
- Kitaoka, Shin-ichi
(March?April 2003),
"Pride and Independence: Fukuzawa Yukichi and the Spirit of the Meiji Restoration (Part 1)"
,
Journal of Japanese Trade and Industry
, archived from
the original
on 2003-03-31
- Kitaoka, Shin-ichi
(May?June 2003),
"Pride and Independence: Fukuzawa Yukichi and the Spirit of the Meiji Restoration (Part 2)"
,
Journal of Japanese Trade and Industry
, archived from
the original
on 2003-05-06
- Albert M. Craig
(2009),
Civilization and Enlightenment: The Early Thought of Fukuzawa Yukichi
(Hardcover ed.), Cambridge: Harvard University Press,
ISBN
978-0-674-03108-1
- Tamaki, Norio (2001),
Fukuzawa Yukichi, 1835-1901: The Spirit of Enterprise in Modern Japan
(Hardcover ed.), United Kingdom: Palgrave Macmillan,
ISBN
978-0-333-80121-5
- (in French)
Lefebvre, Isabelle. "
La revolution chez Fukuzawa et la notion de jitsugaku Fukuzawa Yukichi sous le regard de Maruyama Masao
" (
Archive
).
Cipango
. 19 | 2012 : Le Japon et le fait colonial II. pp. 79-91.
- (in French)
Maruyama, Masao (丸山眞男). "
Introduction aux recherches philosophiques de Fukuzawa Yukichi
" (
Archive
).
Cipango
. 19 | 2012 : Le Japon et le fait colonial II. pp. 191-217. Translated from Japanese by Isabelle Lefebvre.
- (in Japanese)
Original version: Maruyama, Masao. "Fukuzawa ni okeru
jitsugaku
no tenkai. Fukuzawa Yukichi no tetsugaku kenky? josetsu" (福?に於ける「??」の展開、福?諭吉の哲??究序?), March 1947, in Maruyama Masao sh? (丸山眞男集), vol. xvi, T?ky?,
Iwanami Shoten
, (1997), 2004, pp. 108-131.
- (in French) Fukuzawa Yukichi
, L’Appel a l’etude
, complete edition, translated from Japanese, annotated and presented by
Christian Galan
, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, april
2018
, 220 p.
External links
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]
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