The
French?Breton War
(Breton:
Brezel etre Breizh ha Bro-C'hall
, "War between Brittany and France"; French:
Guerre de Bretagne
, "War of Brittany") lasted from 1487 to 1491. The cause of this war was the approaching death of the Breton Duke
Francis II of Brittany
(died 9 September 1488), who had no clear successor. If not resolved, this meant a resumption of issues from a previous
War of the Breton Succession
(1341?1364), which had rival claimants allying with
England
or
France
, resulting in an ambiguous peace treaty that failed to prevent future succession disputes.
This specific conflict between the Sovereign
Duchy of Brittany
and the
Kingdom of France
can be divided into a series of military and diplomatic episodes between 1465 and 1491, until
Anne of Brittany
married
Charles VIII of France
and the eventual end of Breton independence.
Context
[
edit
]
The first
Treaty of Guerande (1365)
settled the
War of the Breton Succession
. For decades, two families, the Blois-Penthievre and
Montfort
, contested the succession of the Sovereign Duchy of Brittany. The latter would eventually prevail. The rights of the two families, however, were recognised in the following manner:
- the Duchy was inherited from male to male in the family of Montfort;
- if there was no male descendant in the family of Montfort, the Ducal rights would pass to the males of the family of Penthievre.
This treaty did not exclude daughters from the succession or the transmission of rights, stating that the Duchy "will not return to women as long as there were male heirs".
Both families had over time disrespected the treaty when it suited them; Various Montforts: (
John IV
,
Francis II
) while the Penthievre forfeited their lands in 1420 after they had kidnapped and isolated Duke
John V
).
At the end of the reign of the current Duke Francis II, the two families had no male heirs: Francis II had two daughters, and the last Penthievre were women. Therefore, the following claimants existed:
Claimants from the House of Montfort
[
edit
]
- the sisters
Anne
and Isabeau of Brittany, daughters of the reigning Duke, last heirs of the family and first in the order of succession;
- John de Chalon
, Prince of Orange, son of Catherine of Brittany (sister of the Duke Francis II). Closest heir to Francis II after Anne and Isabeau;
- John II, Viscount of Rohan and Leon, husband of
Marie of Brittany
(daughter of Duke
Francis I
). Without the Treaty of Guerande, his wife would have become Duchess from 1469, on the death of her older sister
Margaret
. Jean II proposed to marry his sons Francis and Jean to Anne and her sister Isabella, thereby combining the claims. Francis II refused it against the advice of his council and lineal logic. Later he would style himself as a Duke;
- Francis d'Avaugour, bastard son of Duke Francis II and
Antoinette de Maignelais
. He renounced before the
Estates of Brittany
his hypothetical rights.
Claimants from the House of Penthievre
[
edit
]
The
Estates of Brittany
, who had no right or power in the succession question, as this had been given to a French King, by a previous Breton Duke, John V, who had paid homage ? deprived the Penthievre of their rights to Ducal succession after their "treachery" in 1420, the year
Henry V of England
, a supporter of the Montforts, conquered Paris. These rights were to be reviewed by 1447, but the sense of urgency had changed as the French King had recovered Paris (1446) and Normandy (1447) from the English and was now close to the borders of Brittany. After Charles VII crushed the English at
Formigny
(1450), a previous Duke of Brittany wrote to the Penthievre indicating he had cancelled the conditional renunciation of the Penthievre to the Ducal estate:
- John II
, Count of Penthievre (son of Nicole de Chatillon and
Jean II de Brosse
), but his mother had twice renounced her rights (she sold it in 1480 to
Louis XI of France
, confirmed in 1485);
- Charles VIII
, whose father Louis XI bought, on 3 January 1480, the succession rights to the Duchy of Brittany from Nicole de Chatillon, countess of Penthievre. He was recognised as the heir of Francis II by five Breton rebels in the Treaty of Montargis.
- Alain I of Albret
, half-brother of Francoise de Dinan, widower of Francoise de Blois-Bretagne, Countess of Perigord (died in 1481), herself cousin of Nicole de Chatillon, through whom he unsuccessfully claimed the county of Penthievre. He wanted to marry Anne to his son,
John
. He did succeed in betrothing Isabeau (younger sister of Anne) to his son, but Isabeau died before the marriage could take place.
Increased tensions
[
edit
]
Some contenders tried to secure support: Charles VIII and John II gained some from different Breton nobility. Various matrimonial projects also aimed to combine the rights of both branches to a single person.
To secure his family against these pretensions, Francis II had his daughters recognized by the
Estates of Brittany
as heiresses of the Sovereign Duchy, and had Anne crowned Duchess in Rennes, against the provisions of the
Treaty of Guerande (1365)
.
In light of this uncertainty, various parties decided to force the issue to their advantage.
The four campaigns
[
edit
]
1487 campaign
[
edit
]
During the
Mad War
, at the end of May 1487, nearly 15,000 French troops
[1]
entered Brittany. The army of the Duke of Brittany was concentrated towards Malestroit and included 600 cavalry and nearly 16,000 infantry, mainly peasants.
[2]
The advance of French troops was rapid:
Ancenis
,
Chateaubriant
,
La Guerche
, and
Redon
fell to the French.
Ploermel
attempted to resist, but fell after three days of bombardment and was taken on 1 June.
[3]
With this bad news, and political infighting between the Breton nobles, the Ducal army broke up. About 4,000 troops remained,
[4]
unable to rescue Ploermel. Francis II fled to
Vannes
, and finally to
Nantes
.
In Nantes, a defence was organised. By June 19, French troops laid siege to that city. The siege was prolonged due to an effective Breton defence, the faithfulness of the people, the aid of foreign mercenaries, and the decisive support from
Cornouaille
and
Leon
, who broke the blockade. The French troops were held in check, and lifted the siege on 6 August.
[5]
The French King still managed to take Vitre on September 1, then
Saint-Aubin-du-Cormier
and finally
Dol-de-Bretagne
.
[6]
Early in 1488, most Breton towns, however, were recovered by the Ducal army. Only
Clisson
,
La Guerche
,
Dol
,
Saint-Aubin-du-Cormier
, and
Vitre
remained in the hands of the French.
[7]
1488 campaign
[
edit
]
On January 20, 1488, the
Dukes of Orleans
and Brittany were declared rebels by the
Parlement of Paris
. They and their accomplices were no longer considered rebellious vassals, but subjects guilty of high treason. In spring, the Duke of Orleans retook for his Breton ally
Vannes
,
Auray
, and
Ploermel
. The viscounty of
Rohan
was forced to capitulate. On April 24, a French judgment of confiscation was issued against all the goods of Louis of Orleans.
Also in this period of conflict;
For the Bretons:
- Alain of Albret had obtained a subsidy from the Spanish court, and returned to Brittany with 5,000 men.
- Maximilian of Austria
sent 1,500 men.
- Lord Scales landed with 700 English archers, all volunteers.
For the French:
- La Tremoille
assembled his forces on the borders of the Duchy, while;
Maximilian's attention was however diverted by a rebellion in his territory of
Flanders
, supported by the French Marshal d'Esquerdes.
In all of this, the various allies of the Duke of Brittany competed for the hand of
Anne of Brittany
:
were all candidates.
The war resumed in late March 1488. La Tremoille assembled the French army of 15,000 troops in
Pouance
and easily took Chateau de Marcille-Robert on 28 March. On April 7, Francis II ordered the muster of Breton troops in Rennes. On April 15, the French army laid siege to Chateaubriant, which fell eight days later. La Tremoille then moved to Ancenis where he laid siege on the night of the 12th to 13th. The city fell to French artillery on May 19. As negotiations began with the Duke of Brittany, who sought a truce, La Tremoille attacked
Le Loroux-Bottereau
, which fell easily.
[8]
On June 1, a truce concluded the negotiations. It favoured the French, whose troops remained mobilised along the border, while Breton nobles and peasants returned home.
[9]
La Tremoille anticipated the end of the truce, and on 17 June, he put his army on the march towards its next target,
Fougeres
.
[10]
The breakdown of negotiations on July 9 precipitated a Breton defeat; while the Breton army was still reassembling, the French army laid siege to Fougeres. The city was regarded as one of the best defended, guarded by 2,000 to 3,000 men. By mid-July the Breton army was finally assembled, but it was too late to help Fougeres, which had capitulated on the 19th, after a week of siege against the blows of powerful French artillery.
[5]
The French army then moved on to
Dinan
, while the Marshal of the Breton army
Jean IV de Rieux
, began his march in the hope of relieving Fougeres, but was reluctant to fight a pitched battle. On July 28, at the
Battle of Saint-Aubin-du-Cormier
, the Breton troops and their allies were decisively defeated: five to six thousand Bretons died, against 1,500 of the French.
[11]
[12]
Following this defeat, Dinan surrendered in early August, but Rennes decided to resist. La Tremoille, wished to avoid a lengthy and uncertain siege after the last siege of Nantes, chose to bypass Rennes, and attacked
Saint-Malo
, which surrendered on 14 August.
On August 20, peace was concluded in
Anjou
. The
Treaty of Sable
committed the Bretons on several points, including the Duke's promise not to marry his daughters without the consent of the King of France.
Francis II, Duke of Brittany, died on September 9 and
Anne of Brittany
became Duchess in January of the following year. An amnesty was then given to Lescun, Dunois, and most of the vanquished. The french had also captured Louis of Orleans and was imprisoned in a fortress but would be pardoned by Charles VIII three years later.
1489 campaign
[
edit
]
On 10 February 1489, the
Treaty of Redon
was signed between the Duchy of Brittany and
England
:
- King
Henry VII
would provide 6,000 men from mid-February to November each year, but they had to be maintained at the Duchy's expense.
On 14 February, two pacts between Austria-Spain and Austria-England were also signed in
Dordrecht
, against France; they were complemented by a March 27 Anglo-Spanish treaty in
Medina del Campo
.
Within the Duchy however, different ambitions clashed:
- The Marshal of Rieux, as Regent of Brittany and guardian of the young Duchess, was best placed to assemble Breton forces. Alain d'Albret, mainly due to controlling the city of Nantes since 1489, was his ally, and his half-sister Francoise de Dinan, was the governess of
Anne of Brittany
.
- The Viscount Jean de Rohan (who claimed to inherit the Duchy because of his ancestry and his wife, Marie of Brittany) tried to conquer a part of the Duchy beginning with an assault on
Guingamp
in November, but the Marshal of Rieux foiled him. He recommenced in January 1489 with his brother Pierre Quintin and French reinforcements, and succeeded, then seized without difficulty
Hede
,
Montfort
,
Moncontour
,
Quintin
,
Quimper
,
Lannion
,
Treguier
,
Morlaix
,
Concarneau
, and
Brest
in February with part of the Ducal fleet. Only
Concarneau
resisted a siege of 15 days. He then demanded the hand of Anne for his son Jean. But Charles VIII, anxious about his progress, denied him this and forced him to submit.
The Breton Chancellor Philippe de Montauban, Dunois, the Prince of Orange, Raoul de Lornay took the heiress with them, first to Redon, then fled to Nantes, without entering it, the city being held by the Marshal of Rieux. Finally, the Duchess's party took refuge in Rennes, and despite the outrage of the French King on February 10, Anne was crowned.
The Breton treasury at this point was empty, the revenues of the domain were low: the Ducal jewels and plates had been sold. If this was not enough, loans on cities were forced (Francis II had already used this expedient). The chancellery required advances and loans (the Prince of Orange gave over 200,000 pounds, the Duke of Orleans 45,000). Monetary devaluation, which started in 1472 was exacerbated. Finally, various communities wanted to redeem their imposts (they had paid one time a hundred times the annual amount, and were later released).
[13]
Austria and Spain sent mercenaries in March and April (respectively 1,500 and 2,000 men who joined
Anne of Brittany
) and England (6,000 men sent to Rieux). They were employed to retake Rohan towns in
Lower Brittany
(
Lannion
,
Treguier
,
Morlaix
from May to October).
On 3 December 1489, the parties agreed to the Peace of Frankfurt, signed by Maximilian of Austria and the King of France on 22 July. France retained
Brest
, and other places acquired since the
Treaty of Sable
:
Dinan
,
Fougeres
,
Saint-Aubin-du-Cormier
, and
Saint-Malo
. Brittany dismissed its mercenaries. Peace lasted for a year, but both sides kept themselves armed.
In the summer of 1490, a peasant revolt broke out: the peasants of Cornouaille, led by John the Old, assembled and plundered the city of
Quimper
. The revolt was put down by Spanish mercenaries at
Pratanros
.
On July 4, the
Estates of Brittany
met in Vannes. They ratified new imposts and granted new taxes. These additional resources allowed them to pay:
- Jean de Rieux
, for retaining powerful forts in Lower Brittany, absolving him of accusations of treason, and received a payment of 100,000 ecus, plus 14,000 pension;
- Alain I of Albret
, also obtained 100,000 ecus, and the hand of Isabeau for his son Gabriel of Avesnes;
- Francoise de Dinan, his half-sister.
These gifts represented four times the annual budget of the Duchy, and were paid in installments.
On 19 December 1490, Anne married Maximilian of Austria in Rennes by proxy. The French regarded this a provocation and violation of the Treaty of Sable.
1491 campaign
[
edit
]
On 2 January 1491, Alain d'Albret changed allegiance, signing the Treaty of Moulins with the French King: promising the city of Nantes to him. He seized the castle of Nantes on 19 March. On April 4, Easter Sunday, the French King entered the city, which offered no resistance, having been evacuated by the Breton Marshal of Rieux. The French army at this stage had a strength of 50,000 troops. Brittany was therefore regarded by the French as conquered:
- French institutions were created in Brittany (administration of finances with Jean Francois de Cardonne appointed Chief of Finances);
- The Prince of Orange was appointed lieutenant-general.
In July, Rennes was besieged, where Anne's party with 12,000 men resisted, but with few provisions.
By October 27, 1491, Charles VIII convened the
Estates of Brittany
in Vannes, to counsel Anne in accordance to French conditions. A preliminary interview in
Laval
requested the following:
- the occupation of the Duchy by the French army;
- the Viscount de Rohan to be appointed as lieutenant-general representing the King in the Duchy (governor);
- any rights to the Duchy must be submitted to a commission of 24 members;
- Anne of Brittany
to renounce her proxy marriage to her Austrian husband, Maximilian and;
- Marriage of Anne to the French King.
After the siege of Rennes, marriage with the King of France was accepted on November 15, by the Treaty of Rennes: it guaranteed 120,000 livres to the Duchess, and 120,000 livres to the Ducal treasury, to pay off the mercenaries to leave the Duchy. The engagement took place on 23 November at Rennes, and the marriage on December 6 at the
Chateau de Langeais
.
Settlement
[
edit
]
The conflict was settled by various treaties, by which the King of France obtained the renunciation of the rights of the different possible heirs, and regulated various aspects of the succession, including the payment of debts of the Duchy.
- the marriage contract between
Charles VIII
and
Anne of Brittany
:
- both spouses mutually donated their right of succession to the other;
- Jean de Chalons, Prince of Orange and cousin of
Anne of Brittany
, abandoned his rights to the King of France for 100,000 livres;
- Peace of Etaples, signed on November 3, 1492 with the King of England: the two sovereigns agreed on a settlement of the Duchy's debts to the total of 620,000 gold crowns. This agreement freed all towns held as security.
- the Treaty of Barcelona, signed on 19 January 1493, allowed the resolution of the Duchy's debts to the Spanish sovereigns, which also held some rights to the succession.
- Later,
Louis XII
and
Anne of Brittany
put the Rohans on trial, thus depriving them of their rights.
- The privileges and rights of Bretons were confirmed (e.g. no new law without the consent of the
Estates of Brittany
. Appointment of civil officers was reserved only for Bretons or with authorisation, no military service could occur outside Brittany. Bretons could not be tried outside Brittany. Taxes or other compulsory payments would be decided only by the Estates.
Aftermath
[
edit
]
From a political standpoint, Brittany was therefore united to France, definitively according to chroniclers in the reign of Louis XII (only in 1532 according to the Breton writers and modern authors), then annexed and gradually assimilated. It lost its autonomy (under Charles VIII), before retrieving some of it in 1492 and 1499. This was, initially, a purely
personal union
.
[14]
The majority of the nobility of the Duchy and the middle class land owners were generally satisfied with this marriage because peace had returned and the tax burden was greatly reduced. A plot (which included those aggrieved by the settlement occurred: Some officers of the Duchy; captains and citizens hoping for ambitious positions, led by the Viscount of Rohan in collusion with England) in 1492 failed.
The Breton fleet, on the orders of
Anne of Brittany
, also now fought on the side of the French fleet, as shown in the
Battle of Saint-Mathieu
in 1512.
Sources
[
edit
]
Bibliography
[
edit
]
- Rene Cintre,
Les marches de Bretagne au Moyen Age
, 1992, 242 p.
- Dominique Le Page & Michel Nassiet,
L'Union de la Bretagne a la France
, edition Skol Vreizh, 2003
Notes and references
[
edit
]
- ^
Cintre, p.146
- ^
Le Page et Nassiet, p.76
- ^
Philippe Contamine (directeur), Des origines a 1715, Presses universitaires de France, Paris, 1992, in Andre Corvisier (directeur), Histoire militaire de la France,
ISBN
2-13-043872-5
, p 214
- ^
Le Page et Nassiet, p.77
- ^
a
b
Philippe Contamine,
op. cit
, p 214
- ^
Cintre, p.147
- ^
Cintre, p.148
- ^
Cintre, p.150-151
- ^
Le Page et Nassiet, p.90
- ^
Cintre, p.153
- ^
Le Page et Nassiet, p.91
- ^
Cintre, p.157
- ^
Jean-Pierre Leguay.
La poursuite d’un drame, ou la fin du reve d’independance
, in
Fastes et malheurs de la Bretagne ducale
(J-P. Leguay et Herve Martin coauteurs). Ouest-France Universite, 1982. p 407-417
- ^
By this act, Brittany was associated to the Kingdom, rather than absorbed within it, by a strictly personal union of the two sovereigns. As a state within a state, the Duchy enjoyed the advantages of economic access to the Kingdom, while avoiding, it was hoped, the abuse of "absolutism of the French" (Georges Minois,
Anne de Bretagne
, Fayard, 1999, p.399.
External links
[
edit
]