President of Mexico from 1911 to 1913
In this
Spanish name
, the first or paternal
surname
is
Madero
and the second or maternal family name is
Gonzalez
.
Francisco Ignacio Madero Gonzalez
(
Spanish pronunciation:
[f?an?sisko
j??nasjo
ma?ðe?o
?on?sales]
; 30 October 1873 ? 22 February 1913) was a Mexican businessman, revolutionary, writer and
statesman
, who served as the 37th
president of Mexico
from 1911 until he was deposed in
a coup d'etat
in February 1913 and assassinated.
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
He came to prominence as an advocate for democracy and as an opponent of President and
de facto
dictator
Porfirio Diaz
. After Diaz claimed to have won the fraudulent election of 1910 despite promising a return to democracy, Madero started the
Mexican Revolution
to oust Diaz. The Mexican revolution would continue until 1920, well after Madero and Diaz's deaths, with hundreds of thousands dead.
A member of one of Mexico's wealthiest families, Madero studied business at the
Ecole des Hautes Etudes Commerciales de Paris
. An advocate for
social justice
and democracy, his 1908 book
The Presidential Succession in 1910
called Mexican voters to prevent the reelection of
Porfirio Diaz
, whose regime had become increasingly authoritarian. Bankrolling the opposition
Anti-Reelectionist Party
, Madero's candidacy garnered widespread support in the country.
[6]
He challenged Diaz in the
1910 election
, which resulted in his arrest. After Diaz declared himself winner for an eighth term in a
rigged election
,
[7]
Madero escaped from jail, fled to the United States, and called for the overthrow of his regime in the
Plan of San Luis Potosi
, sparking the
Mexican Revolution
.
Madero's armed support was concentrated in northern Mexico and was aided by access to arms and finances in the United States.
[8]
In
Chihuahua
, Madero recruited wealthy landowner
Abraham Gonzalez
to his movement, appointing him provisional governor of the state. Gonzalez then enlisted
Pancho Villa
and
Pascual Orozco
as revolutionary leaders.
[9]
Madero crossed from Texas into Mexico and took command of a band of revolutionaries, but was defeated in the
Battle of Casas Grandes
by the Federal Army, which led him to abandon military command roles.
[10]
Concerned the
Battle of Ciudad Juarez
would cause casualties in the American city of
El Paso
and prompt foreign intervention, Madero ordered Villa and Orozco to retreat, but they disobeyed and captured Juarez. Diaz resigned on 25 May 1911 after the signing of the
Treaty of Ciudad Juarez
and went into exile. Madero retained the Federal Army and dismissed the revolutionary fighters who had forced Diaz's resignation.
Madero was enormously popular among many sectors but did not immediately assume the presidency.
An interim president
was installed, and elections were scheduled. Madero
was elected
in a landslide and sworn into office on 6 November 1911. The Madero administration soon encountered opposition from conservatives and more radical revolutionaries. Hesitation to implement large-scale
land reform
efforts upset many of his followers, who viewed it as a promised demand from conflict participation. Workers also became disillusioned by his moderate policies. Former supporter
Emiliano Zapata
declared himself in rebellion against Madero in the
Plan of Ayala
, and in the north, Pascual Orozco
led an insurrection
against him. Foreign investors became concerned that Madero could not maintain political stability, while foreign governments were concerned that a destabilized Mexico would threaten international order.
In February 1913, a coup d'etat backed by the United States and led by conservative Generals
Felix Diaz
(a nephew of Porfirio Diaz),
Bernardo Reyes
, and general
Victoriano Huerta
was staged in Mexico City, with the latter taking the presidency. Madero was captured and assassinated along with vice-president
Jose Maria Pino Suarez
in a series of events now called the
Ten Tragic Days
, where his brother
Gustavo
was tortured and killed. After his assassination, Madero became a unifying force among revolutionary factions against the Huerta regime. In the north,
Venustiano Carranza
, then Governor of
Coahuila
, led the nascent
Constitutionalist Army
; meanwhile, Zapata continued his rebellion against the Federal Government under the Plan of Ayala. Once Huerta was ousted in July 1914, the revolutionary coalitions met in the
Convention of Aguascalientes
, where disagreements persisted, and Mexico entered a new stage of civil war.
Early years (1873?1903)
[
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]
Family background
[
edit
]
Francisco Ignacio Madero Gonzalez was born in 1873 into a large and extremely wealthy family in northeastern Mexico at the
hacienda
of El Rosario, in
Parras de la Fuente
,
Coahuila
. His grandfather
Evaristo Madero Elizondo
had built an enormous and diversified fortune as a young man and briefly served as
Governor of Coahuila
, from 1880 to 1884,
[11]
during the four-year
interregnum
of Porfirio Diaz's rule (1880?1884), when Diaz's right-hand man General
Manuel Gonzalez
served as president, doing a poor job in Diaz's opinion. Diaz returned to the presidency in 1884 and did not relinquish the office until 1911, when Francisco Madero's revolutionary movement forced him to resign. Diaz had permanently sidelined Evaristo Madero from further political office. He was of
Portuguese
-Jewish descent
[12]
Evaristo was the founder of a commercial transport business. Taking advantage of economic opportunity, he transported cotton from the
Confederate states
to Mexican ports during the
U.S. Civil War
(1861?65).
Evaristo married twice, with the first marriage before he made his fortune to sixteen-year-old Maria Rafaela Hernadez Lombarana (1847?1870), the daughter of an influential landowner, together producing seven children. She was the half-sister of the powerful miner and banker
Antonio V. Hernandez Benavides
, a close friend of
Jose Yves Limantour
, Secretary of Finance. Alongside his brother-in-law and others of his new political family's relations, Evaristo founded the
Compania Industrial de Parras
, initially involved in commercial vineyards, cotton, and textiles, and later also in mining, cotton mills, ranching, banking, coal,
guayule
rubber, and foundries in the later part of the nineteenth century. After Rafaela Hernandez's death at age 38, Evaristo married Manuela Farias y Benavides (1870?1893), producing eleven children. She was a member of one of northern Mexico's most influential families, daughter of
Juan Francisco Farias
, founder of the
Rio Grande Republic
. The surviving children of Evaristo's marriages also married into prominent families and expanded the Madero family's power and wealth.
For many years despite their exclusion from political office, the family prospered during
Porfirio Diaz
's regime, and by 1910 the family was one of the richest in Mexico, worth 30 million pesos ($15 million U.S. dollars
[13]
of the day, and almost $500 million U.S. dollars in today's money). Much of this wealth arose from the diversification of Madero lands during the 1890s into the production of
guayule
rubber plants.
[14]
Unusually for a Mexican landowner, many of whom stayed close to home, the patriarch Evaristo traveled to Europe, as did Francisco's father. Francisco's father was interested in the increasingly popular philosophical movement of
spiritism
, founded by
Allan Kardec
, and subscribed to the
La Revue Spirite
and the Societe Parisienne d'Etudes Spirites, whilst completing his studies at the Ecole Commercial in
Antwerp
(
Belgium
). Back in Mexico, he hired
Thomas Edison
to electrify his hacienda and neighboring town of
Parras
. Young Francisco was sent to Paris to study business alongside his brother
Gustavo
and became a devotee of spiritism himself. He wrote extensively about spiritism in his diaries. "He was searching for ethical connections between Spiritualism and the Christian Gospels. 'I have no doubts that the moral transformation I have experienced is due to my becoming a medium.'"
[15]
Francisco I. Madero was the first-born son of Evaristo's first-born son of his first marriage, Francisco Ignacio Madero Hernandez and Mercedes Gonzalez Trevino, and was Evaristo's first-born grandson. Young Francisco was the first of his father's eleven children. This wealthy and prolific extended family could provide vast resources to young Francisco when he challenged Porfirio Diaz for the presidency in 1910. He was a sickly child and was small in stature as an adult.
[16]
[17]
It is widely believed that Madero's middle initial, I, stood for Indalecio, but according to his birth certificate it stood for Ignacio.
[18]
On the birth certificate, Ignacio was written with the archaic spelling of
Ygnacio
.
[19]
After winning election to the presidency in 1911, Francisco confirmed his uncle
Ernesto Madero Farias
, from his grandfather's second marriage, as his Minister of Finance (a post which he had since the previous presidency), which was used to accuse him of nepotism. Francisco was close to his brother
Gustavo A. Madero
as a trusted advisor when president. His brother Gustavo was murdered during
the coup
that overthrew Francisco from the presidency. His brothers Emilio, Julio, and Raul fought in the Mexican Revolution.
Although Francisco I. Madero's marriage to Sara Perez was childless and there are no direct descendants of his line of the Maderos, the descendants of Evaristo Madero make up some of Mexico's most influential families today. Thus, young Francisco was a member of an extended and powerful northern Mexican clan with a focus on commercial rather than political interests.
[20]
Education
[
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]
Francisco and his younger brother
Gustavo A. Madero
attended the
Jesuit
college of San Juan in
Saltillo
and wanted to then become a Jesuit. He and his brother Gustavo briefly attended another religious school in the U.S. His English was poor, so he learned little in his short time there, and he abandoned any notion of a religious vocation.
[21]
Between 1886 and 1892, Madero was educated in France and then the United States, attending the
Lycee Hoche
de Versailles,
HEC Paris
and
UC Berkeley
. At the
Lycee Hoche
in
Versailles
, France, he completed the
classe preparatoire aux grandes ecoles
program. Soon after, he was admitted to study business at the prestigious
Ecole des Hautes Etudes Commerciales de Paris
(HEC). His father's subscription to the magazine
Revue Spirite
awakened in the young Madero an interest in
Spiritism
, an offshoot of
Spiritualism
. During his time in Paris, Madero made a pilgrimage to the tomb of
Allan Kardec
, the founder of Spiritism, and became a passionate advocate of the belief, soon coming to believe he was a
medium
. Following business school, Madero studied at the
University of California, Berkeley
, to pursue courses in agricultural techniques and to improve his English. During his time there, he was influenced by the
theosophist
ideas of
Annie Besant
, which were prominent at nearby
Stanford University
.
[22]
Return to Mexico
[
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]
In 1893, the 20-year-old Madero returned to Mexico and assumed management of one of the Madero family's
hacienda
at
San Pedro, Coahuila
. Well-traveled and well-educated, he was now in robust health.
[22]
Proving an enlightened and progressive member of the Madero commercial complex,
[23]
Francisco installed new irrigation, introduced American-made cotton and cotton machinery, and built a soap factory and also an ice factory. He embarked on a lifelong commitment to philanthropy. His employees were well paid and received regular medical exams; he built schools, hospitals, and community kitchens; and he paid to support orphans and award scholarships. He also taught himself
homeopathy
and offered medical treatments to his employees. Francisco became increasingly engaged with Spiritism and in 1901 was convinced that the spirit of his brother Raul, who had died at age 4, was communicating with him, urging him to do charity work and practice self-discipline and self-abnegation. Madero became a vegetarian and stopped drinking alcohol and smoking.
[24]
Already well-connected to a wealthy family and now well-educated in business, he had built a personal fortune of over 500,000 pesos
[23]
by 1899.
[22]
He invested in mines with other members of his family,
[25]
which came to compete with interests of the
Guggenheim family
in Mexico.
[26]
The family was organized on patriarchal principles, so that even though young Francisco was wealthy in his own right, his father and especially his grandfather Evaristo viewed him as someone who should be under the authority of his elders. As the eldest sibling, Francisco exercised authority over his younger brothers and sisters.
[27]
In January 1903, he married
Sara Perez Romero
, first in a civil ceremony, and then a Catholic nuptial mass celebrated by the archbishop.
[28]
Political career
[
edit
]
Introduction to politics (1903?1908)
[
edit
]
On 2 April 1903,
Bernardo Reyes
, governor of
Nuevo Leon
, violently crushed a political demonstration, an example of the increasingly authoritarian policies of president
Porfirio Diaz
. Madero was deeply moved and, believing himself to be receiving advice from the spirit of his late brother Raul, he decided to act.
[29]
The spirit of Raul told him, "Aspire to do good for your fellow citizens...working for a lofty ideal that will raise the moral level of society, that will succeed in liberating it from oppression, slavery, and fanaticism."
[30]
Madero founded the
Benito Juarez
Democratic Club and ran for municipal office in 1904, though he lost the election narrowly. In addition to his political activities, Madero continued his interest in Spiritualism, publishing a number of articles under the pseudonym of
Arjuna
(a prince from the
Mahabharata
).
[31]
In 1905, Madero became increasingly involved in opposition to the Diaz government, which had excluded his family from political power. He organized political clubs and founded a political newspaper (
El Democrata
) and a satirical periodical (
El Mosco
, "The Fly"). Madero's preferred candidate, Frumencio Fuentes, was defeated by that of Porfirio Diaz in Coahuila's 1905 gubernatorial elections. Diaz considered jailing Madero, but Bernardo Reyes suggested that Francisco's father be asked to control his increasingly political son.
[31]
Leader of the Anti-Re-election Movement (1908?1909)
[
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]
In an interview with journalist
James Creelman
published on 17 February 1908 issue of
Pearson's Magazine
, President Diaz said that Mexico was ready for a democracy and that the 1910 presidential election would be a free election.
Madero spent the bulk of 1908 writing a book, which he believed was at the direction of spirits, now including that of Benito Juarez himself.
[32]
This book, published in January 1909, was titled
La sucesion presidencial en 1910
(
The Presidential Succession of 1910
). The book quickly became a bestseller in Mexico. The book proclaimed that the concentration of absolute power in the hands of one man ? Porfirio Diaz ? for so long had made Mexico sick. Madero pointed out the irony that in 1871, Porfirio Diaz's political slogan had been "No Re-election". Madero acknowledged that Porfirio Diaz had brought peace and a measure of economic growth to Mexico. However, Madero argued that this was counterbalanced by the dramatic loss of freedom, including the brutal treatment of the
Yaqui people
, the repression of workers in
Cananea
, excessive concessions to the United States, and an unhealthy centralization of politics around the person of the president. Madero called for a return of the Liberal
1857 Constitution
. To achieve this, Madero proposed organizing a Democratic Party under the slogan
Sufragio efectivo, no reeleccion
("Effective Suffrage. No Re-election"). Porfirio Diaz could either run in a free election or retire.
[33]
Madero's book was well received, and widely read. Many people began to call Madero
the Apostle of Democracy
. Madero sold off much of his property ? often at a considerable loss ? to finance anti-re-election activities throughout Mexico. He founded the Anti-Re-election Center in
Mexico City
in May 1909, and soon thereafter lent his backing to the periodical
El Antirreeleccionista
, which was run by the young lawyer/philosopher
Jose Vasconcelos
and another intellectual,
Luis Cabrera Lobato
.
[34]
In Puebla,
Aquiles Serdan
, from a politically engaged family, contacted Madero and as a result, formed an Anti-Re-electionist Club to organize for the 1910 elections, particularly among the working classes.
[35]
Madero traveled throughout Mexico giving anti-reelectionist speeches, and everywhere he went he was greeted by crowds of thousands. His candidacy cost him financially, since he sold much of his property at a loss to back his campaign.
[34]
In spite of the attacks by Madero and his earlier statements to the contrary, Diaz ran for re-election. In a show of U.S. support, Diaz and
William Howard Taft
planned a summit in
El Paso
, Texas, and
Ciudad Juarez
, Chihuahua, for 16 October 1909, a historic first meeting between a Mexican and a U.S. president and also the first time a U.S. president would cross the border into Mexico.
[36]
At the meeting, Diaz told
John Hays Hammond
, "Since I am responsible for bringing several billion dollars in foreign investments into my country, I think I should continue in my position until a competent successor is found."
[37]
The summit was a great success for Diaz, but it could have been a major tragedy. On the day of the summit,
Frederick Russell Burnham
, the celebrated scout, and Private C.R. Moore, a
Texas Ranger
, discovered a man holding a concealed
palm pistol
along the procession route and they disarmed the assassin within only a few feet of Diaz and Taft.
[36]
The Porfirian regime reacted to Madero by placing pressure on the Madero family's banking interests, and at one point even issued a warrant for Madero's arrest on the grounds of "unlawful transaction in rubber".
[38]
Madero was not arrested, though, apparently due in part to the intervention of Diaz's finance minister,
Jose Yves Limantour
, a friend of the Madero family.
[39]
In April 1910, the Anti-Re-electionist Party met and selected Madero as their nominee for
President of Mexico
.
During the convention, the governor of Veracruz arranged a meeting between Madero and Diaz,
Teodoro Dehesa
, and took place in Diaz's residence on 16 April 1910. Only the candidate and the president were present for the meeting, so the only account of it is Madero's correspondence. A political solution and compromise might have been possible, with Madero withdrawing his candidacy.
[40]
It became clear to Madero that Diaz was a decrepit old man, out of touch politically, and unaware of the extent of formal political opposition.
[40]
The meeting was important for strengthening Madero's resolve that political compromise was not possible and he is quoted as saying "Porfirio is not an imposing chief. Nevertheless, it will be necessary to start a revolution to overthrow him. But who will crush it afterwards?"
[41]
Madero was worried that Porfirio Diaz would not willingly relinquish office, warned his supporters of the possibility of electoral fraud and proclaimed that "Force shall be met by force!"
[42]
Campaign, arrest, escape 1910
[
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]
Madero campaigned across the country on a message of reform and met with numerous supporters. Resentful of the "peaceful invasion" from the United States "which came to control 90 percent of Mexico's mineral resources, its national railroad, its oil industry and, increasingly, its land," Mexico's poor and middle-class overwhelmingly showed their support for Madero.
[43]
Fearful of a dramatic change in direction, on 6 June 1910, the Porfirian regime arrested Madero in
Monterrey
and sent him to a prison in
San Luis Potosi
. Approximately 5,000 other members of the Anti-Re-electionist movement were also jailed.
Francisco Vazquez Gomez
took over the nomination, but during Madero's time in jail, a fraudulent election was held on 21 June 1910 that gave Diaz an unbelievably large margin of victory.
Madero's father used his influence with the state governor and posted bond to give Madero the right to move about the city on horseback during the day. On 4 October 1910, Madero galloped away from his guards and took refuge with sympathizers in a nearby village. Three days later he was smuggled across the
U.S. border
, hidden in a baggage car by sympathetic railway workers. He took up residence in San Antonio, Texas, where he plotted his next moves. He wrote the
Plan of San Luis Potosi
in San Antonio, but back dated and situated in to last place he had been in Mexico.
Plan of San Luis Potosi and rebellion
[
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]
Madero set up shop in
San Antonio
, Texas, and quickly issued his
Plan of San Luis Potosi
, which had been written during his time in prison, partly with the help of
Ramon Lopez Velarde
. The plan proclaimed the elections of 1910 null and void, and called for an armed revolution to begin at 6 pm on 20 November 1910, against the "illegitimate presidency/dictatorship of Diaz". At that point, Madero declared himself provisional President of Mexico, and called for a general refusal to acknowledge the central government, restitution of land to villages and Indian communities, and freedom for political prisoners. Madero's policies painted him as a leader of each of the different sectors of Mexican society at the time. He was a member of the upper class; the middle class saw that he sought to gain entry into political processes; the lower class saw that he promised fairer politics and a much more substantial, equitable economic system.
[44]
The family drew on its financial resources to make regime change possible, with Madero's brother
Gustavo A. Madero
hiring the law firm of Washington lawyer
Sherburne Hopkins
, the "world's best rigger of Latin American revolutions" to foment support in the U.S.
[45]
A strategy to discredit Diaz with U.S. business and the U.S. government did meet some success, with
Standard Oil
engaging in talks with Gustavo Madero, but more importantly, the U.S. government "bent neutrality laws for the revolutionaries."
[46]
The U.S. Senate held hearings in 1913 as to whether the U.S. had any role in fomenting revolution in Mexico,
[47]
Hopkins gave testimony that "he did not believe that it cost the Maderos themselves more than $400,000 gold", with the aggregate cost being $1,500,000US.
[48]
Madero supposedly initiated the Mexican Revolution with guidance from spirits
[49]
(Madero identified as a medium who communicated with ghosts, including historical figures like
Benito Juarez
and even his deceased younger brother.)
[50]
[51]
El Paso, Texas, became a major staging point for Madero's insurrection against Diaz. It is directly across the Rio Grande from Ciudad Juarez, where two railway Mexican lines, the Mexican National Railroad and the Mexican Northwest Railroad, are connected with the U.S. Southern Pacific Railroad. El Paso was the site of a historic meeting between Mexican President Porfirio Diaz and U.S. President William Howard Taft in 1909. The population of the twin border cities increased dramatically in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries with legal commerce and considerable smuggling, "a time-honored occupation along the border."
[52]
As the political tensions in Mexico increased, the smuggling of guns and ammunition to insurrectionists was big business. Madero remained in San Antonio, Texas, but his main man in Chihuahua, Abraham Gonzalez had recruited gifted, natural military leaders, Pancho Villa and Pascual Orozco, to Madero's cause. Chihuahua became the hub of insurrectionist activity. Villa and Orozco had increasing success against the Federal Army, which drew more recruits to Madero's cause since it seemed to have a real chance at success.
[53]
Antonio I. Villareal
[
es
]
, a follower of
Ricardo Flores Magon
, who forbade members of the Magonista movement to have anything to do with the Madero movement, but the pragmatist Villareal joined Madero.
[54]
On 20 November 1910, Madero arrived at the border and planned to meet up with 400 men raised by his uncle Catarino Benavides Hernandez to launch an attack on Ciudad Porfirio Diaz (modern-day
Piedras Negras, Coahuila
). However, his uncle arrived late and brought only ten men. Madero decided to postpone the revolution. Instead, he and his brother Raul (who had been given the same name as his late brother) traveled incognito to New Orleans, Louisiana.
On 14 February 1911, Madero crossed the border into Chihuahua state from Texas, and on 6 March 1911 led 130 men in an attack on
Casas Grandes, Chihuahua
. Although holding democratic ideals that attracted many to his movement, Madero learned he was not a military leader. "Madero didn't know the first thing about warfare," initially capturing the town from the Federal Army, but he did not realize he needed to scout whether Federal reinforcements were on the way.
[10]
There were heavy casualties among the insurrectionists, a number of whom were foreigners, including many from the U.S. and some from Germany. Two survivors of the Casas Grandes debacle were
Giuseppe Garibaldi II
, grandson of the famous Italian revolutionary, and General
Benjamin Johannis Voljoen
, an Afrikaner veteran of the
Boer War
. Madero was slightly wounded in his right arm in the fighting, shown bandaged in a photograph.
[55]
Madero was saved by his personal bodyguard and Revolutionary general
Maximo Castillo
.
[56]
He remained head of the movement in the north to oust Diaz. Madero movement successfully imported arms from the United States, procured by agents in the United States. Some were shipped directly from New York, disguised so that they would not be intercepted by the U.S. government. There were two businesses in El Paso that sold arms and ammunition to the rebels. The U.S. government of President
William Howard Taft
hired agents to surveil insurrectionists, fairly openly operated in El Paso. But the U.S. government efforts to halt the flow of arms to the Mexican revolutionaries failed.
By April the Revolution had spread to eighteen
states
, including
Morelos
where the leader was
Emiliano Zapata
. On 1 April 1911, Porfirio Diaz claimed that he had heard the voice of the people of Mexico, replaced his cabinet, and agreed to restitution of the lands of the dispossessed. Madero did not believe this statement and instead demanded the resignation of President Diaz and Vice-president
Ramon Corral
. Madero then attended a meeting with the other revolutionary leaders ? they agreed to a fourteen-point plan which called for pay for revolutionary soldiers; the release of political prisoners; and the right of the revolutionaries to name several members of cabinet. Madero was moderate, however. He believed that the revolutionaries should proceed cautiously so as to minimize bloodshed and should strike a deal with Diaz if possible.
In early May, Madero wanted to extend a ceasefire, but his fellow revolutionaries
Pascual Orozco
and
Pancho Villa
disagreed and went ahead without orders on 8 May to attack
Ciudad Juarez
. It surrendered after two days of bloody fighting. The revolutionaries won this battle decisively, making it clear that Diaz could no longer retain power.
On 21 May 1911, the
Treaty of Ciudad Juarez
was signed. Under the terms of the Treaty of Ciudad Juarez, Diaz and Corral agreed to resign by the end of May 1911, with Diaz's
Minister of Foreign Affairs
,
Francisco Leon de la Barra
, becoming interim president solely for the purpose of calling general elections. Madero did not want to come to power by force of arms, but by a democratic election.
This first phase of the Mexican Revolution thus ended with Diaz leaving for exile in Europe at the end of May 1911. He was escorted to the port of Veracruz by General
Victoriano Huerta
. On 7 June 1911, Madero entered
Mexico City
in triumph where he was greeted with huge crowds shouting "
¡Viva Madero!
"
Madero was arriving not as the conquering hero, but as a presidential candidate who now embarked on campaigning for the fall presidential election. He left in place all but the top political figures of the Diaz regime as well as the Federal Army, which had just been defeated by revolutionary forces. The
Governor of Coahuila
,
Venustiano Carranza
, and
Luis Cabrera
had strongly advised Madero not to sign the treaty, since it gave away the power the revolutionary forces had won. For Madero, that was not the only consideration. Madero saw that revolutionaries like Orozco were not going to docilely obey his orders not to attack and the situation could get even more out of hand when Diaz resigned. Madero recognized the legitimacy of the Federal Army and called on revolutionary forces to disband. "Having removed Diaz, it appeared that Madero was trying to contain the Revolutionary tiger before it had time to enjoy its liberty."
[57]
Interim presidency of De la Barra (May?November 1911)
[
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]
Although Madero and his supporters had forced Porfirio Diaz from power, he did not assume the presidency in June 1911. Instead, following the terms of the Treaty of Ciudad Juarez, he was a candidate for president and had no formal role in the interim presidency of
Francisco Leon de la Barra
, a diplomat and lawyer. Left in place was the
Congress of Mexico
, which was full of candidates whom Diaz had handpicked for the 1910 election. By doing this, Madero was true to his ideological commitment to constitutional democracy, but with members of the Diaz regime still in power, he was caused difficulties in the short and long term. The German ambassador to Mexico,
Paul von Hintze
, who associated with the Interim President, said of him that "De la Barra wants to accommodate himself with dignity to the inevitable advance of the ex-revolutionary influence, while accelerating the widespread collapse of the Madero party...."
[58]
Madero sought to be a moderate democrat and follow the course outlined in treaty bringing about exile of Diaz, but by calling for the disarming and demobilization of his revolutionary base, he undermined his support. The Mexican Federal Army, just defeated by the revolutionaries, was to continue as the armed force of the Mexican state. Madero argued that the revolutionaries should henceforth proceed solely by peaceful means. In the south, revolutionary leader
Emiliano Zapata
was skeptical about disbanding his troops, especially since the Federal Army from the Diaz era remained essentially intact. However, Madero traveled south to meet with Zapata at
Cuernavaca
and
Cuautla, Morelos
. Madero assured Zapata that the land redistribution promised in the Plan of San Luis Potosi would be carried out when Madero became president.
With Madero now campaigning for the presidency, which he was expected to win, several landowners from Zapata's state of
Morelos
took advantage of his not being head of state and appealed to President De la Barra and the Congress to restore their lands which had been seized by Zapatista revolutionaries. They spread exaggerated stories of atrocities committed by Zapata's irregulars, calling Zapata the "
Attila
of the South". De la Barra and the Congress, therefore, decided to send regular troops under
Victoriano Huerta
to suppress Zapata's revolutionaries. Madero once again traveled south to urge Zapata to disband his supporters peacefully, but Zapata refused on the grounds that Huerta's troops were advancing on
Yautepec
. Zapata's suspicions proved accurate as Huerta's Federal soldiers moved violently into Yautepec. Madero wrote to De la Barra, saying that Huerta's actions were unjustified and recommending that Zapata's demands be met. However, when he left the south, he had achieved nothing. Nevertheless, he promised the
Zapatistas
that once he became president, things would change. Most Zapatistas had grown suspicious of Madero, however.
Presidency and death (November 1911 ? February 1913)
[
edit
]
Madero became president in November 1911, and, intending to reconcile the nation, appointed a cabinet that included many of Porfirio Diaz's supporters, as well as Madero's uncle
Ernesto Madero
, as Minister of Finance. A curious fact is that almost immediately after taking office in November, Madero became the first head of state in the world to fly in an airplane, which the Mexican press was later to mock.
[59]
Madero was unable to achieve the reconciliation he desired since conservative Porfirians had organized themselves during the interim presidency and now mounted a sustained and effective opposition to Madero's reform program. Conservatives in the Senate refused to pass the reforms he advocated. At the same time, several of Madero's allies denounced him for being overly conciliatory with the Porfirians and with not moving aggressively forward with reforms.
After years of censorship, Mexican newspapers took advantage of their newly found
freedom of the press
to harshly criticize Madero's performance as president.
Gustavo A. Madero
, the president's brother, remarked that "the newspapers bite the hand that took off their muzzle." President Madero refused the recommendation of some of his advisors that he bring back censorship. The press was particularly critical of Madero's handling of rebellions that broke out against his rule shortly after he became president.
Despite internal and external opposition, the Madero administration had a number of important accomplishments, including freedom of the press. He freed political prisoners and abolished the death penalty. He did away with the practice of the Diaz government, which appointed local political bosses (
jefes politicos
), and instead set up a system of independent municipal authorities. State elections were free and fair. He was concerned about the improvement of education, establishing new schools and workshops. An important step was the creation of a federal department of labor, limited the workday to 10 hours, and set in place regulations on women's and children's labor. Unions were granted the right to freely organize. The
Casa del Obrero Mundial
("House of the World Worker"), an organization with
anarcho-syndicalist
was founded during his presidency.
[60]
Madero alienated a number of his political supporters when he created a new political party, the Constitutionalist Progressive party, which replaced the Anti-Reelectionist Party. He ousted leftist Emilio Vazquez Gomez from his cabinet, brother of Francisco Vazquez Gomez, whom Madero had replaced as his vice presidential candidate with Pino Suarez.
[61]
Madero made gestures of reform to those who had helped bring him to power, but his aim was a democratic transition to power, fulfilled by his election. His supporters were offered mild gestures of reform, creating a Department of Labor and a National Agrarian Commission, but organized labor and peasants seeking land did not have their fundamental situations changed.
[62]
Rebellions
[
edit
]
Madero retained the Mexican Federal Army and ordered the demobilization of revolutionary forces. For revolutionaries who considered themselves the reason that Diaz resigned, this was a hard course to follow. Since Madero did not implement immediate, radical reforms that many of those had supported him had expected, he lost control of those areas in Morelos and Chihuahua. A series of internal rebellions challenged Madero's presidency before the February 1913 coup that deposed him.
Zapatista rebellion
[
edit
]
In Morelos,
Emiliano Zapata
proclaimed the
Plan of Ayala
on 25 November 1911, which excoriated Madero's slowness on land reform and declared the signatories in rebellion. Zapata's plan recognized Pascual Orozco as fellow revolutionary, although Orozco was for the moment loyal to Madero, until 1912. Madero sent the Federal Army to suppress the rebellion, but failed to do so. For Madero's opponents this was evidence of his ineffectiveness as a leader.
Reyes rebellion
[
edit
]
In December 1911, General
Bernardo Reyes
, whom Porfirio Diaz had sent to Europe on a diplomatic mission because Diaz worried that Reyes was going to challenge him for the presidency, launched a rebellion in
Nuevo Leon
, where he had previously served as governor. He called for "the people" to rise against Madero. "His rebellion was a total failure",
[63]
lasting only eleven days before Reyes surrendered to the Federal Army at
Linares, Nuevo Leon
. When the rebellion broke out, Madero made a calculated decision to entrust Pascual Orozco to put it down. In the fight against D?az, Orozco had led revolutionary forces in the north capturing Ciudad Juarez, against Madero's orders. Madero had not treated him well after he was elected, but entrusted him over General Victoriano Huerta. Huerta had previously been a supporter of Reyes, and Madero was concerned that Huerta would join with Reyes rather than suppress the rebellion. In one historian's assessment, "would have ensued and seriously threatedPresident Madero played his political cards perfectly this occasion. Had he dispatched a large force to the north under the command of either Huerta of [General] Blanquet, it is quite possible that a major military defection, seriously threatening the government."
[64]
[65]
Reyes was sent to the Santiago Tlatelolco military prison in
Mexico City
. Madero allowed Reyes privileges while in prison, which allowed him to organize subsequent conspiracies from jail.
[66]
Vazquez Gomez rebellion
[
edit
]
Nearly simultaneous with Reyes's rebellion,
Emilio Vazquez Gomez
, rose in rebellion. Emilio was the brother of
Francisco Vazquez Gomez
whom Madero replaced as the vice presidential candidate Pino Suarez when he successfully ran for president. Emilio gathered supporters in Chihuahua, with a number of small rebellions against the Madero's regime breaking out in December 1911. Although Madero sent the Federal Army, he then sent Orozco to put down the rebellion. Rebels had captured and looted Ciudad Juarez. Orozco arrived with a contingent of troops. Still popular in Chihuahua, Orozco persuaded rebels to lay down their arms against Madero. Madero was delighted that Orozco had been so successful in dealing with two rebellions.
[67]
Orozco rebellion
[
edit
]
The two small, northern rebellions that Orozco suppressed showed his again his military skills, but with the Vazquez Gomez rebellion, he realized his continued popularity. In his recent dealings with Madero, the president had shown him respect, which was much lacking after Orozco disobeyed Madero's orders not to take Ciudad Juarez in May 1911 when Madero was attempting non-military means to persuade D?az to resign. Orozco was personally resentful of how President Madero had treated him once he was in office. He launched a rebellion in
Chihuahua
in March 1912 with the financial backing of
Luis Terrazas
, a former
Governor of Chihuahua
who was the largest landowner in Mexico. Northern oligarchs had opposed ousting of Diaz and Madero's presidency and saw in Orozco a potential ally, a rival to oust Madero. They began flattering him that he was the man to bring order to Mexico. Madero's advisors had repeatedly warned Madero that Orozco was untrustworthy, but Madero had just seen the demonstration of Orozco's loyalty in preserving his presidency. Orozco's "revolution came as a complete shock to Madero."
[68]
At his request, Madero dispatched troops under General Jose Gonzalez Salas, the Secretary of War, to put down the rebellion. Gonzalez Salas was not a seasoned campaign general, but he did not want Huerta to be dispatched. Unlike the two small, unsuccessful rebellions that attracted few followers, Orozco not only had an army to 8,000 men, he had backing from landowning interests, and a detailed battle plan to sweep through Chihuahua and capture Mexico City. Although Gonzalez Salas commanded forces of 2,000 troops, he was an ineffective leader. In the first major encounter, Orozco triumphed, crushing the Federal Army. Gonzalez Salas committed suicide after the military humiliation.
[69]
General
Victoriano Huerta
assumed control of the federalist forces. Huerta was more successful, defeating Orozco's troops in three major battles and forcing Orozco to flee to the United States in September 1912.
Relations between Huerta and Madero grew strained during the course of this campaign when
Pancho Villa
, the commander of the
Division del Norte
, refused orders from General Huerta. Huerta ordered Villa's execution, but Madero commuted the sentence and Villa was sent to the same Santiago Tlatelolco prison as Reyes from which he escaped on Christmas Day 1912.
[70]
Angry at Madero's commutation of Villa's sentence, Huerta, after a long night of drinking, mused about reaching an agreement with Orozco and together deposing Madero as president.
[
citation needed
]
When Mexico's Minister of War learned of General Huerta's comments, he stripped Huerta of his command, but Madero intervened and restored Huerta to command.
Felix Diaz rebellion
[
edit
]
October 1912,
Felix Diaz
(nephew of Porfirio Diaz) launched a rebellion in
Veracruz
, hoping to capitalize on his famous name and with support from the U.S. But even with U.S. support, Diaz's rebellion collapsed after no Mexican generals or the general populace supported it. Diaz was arrested and imprisoned. Although Diaz was sentenced to death for his rebellion, the
Supreme Court of Mexico
, whose judges were appointed by former President Diaz, declared that Felix Diaz would be imprisoned, but not executed. Madero did not interfere with the decision; Diaz was transferred to the same prison where Reyes was incarcerated, where the two plotted further conspiracies. "Madero displayed a fatal softness toward the leaders of these coup attempts.
[66]
U.S. and the Madero government
[
edit
]
Initially, the U.S. was cautiously optimistic about Madero leading the new government. He had kept the Federal Army and the federal bureaucracy, and dismissed the revolutionary forces that brought him to power. Although his Plan of San Luis Potosi signaled his openness to land reform, he failed to move on it, which did not have an impact on the U.S. or its business interests. Madero displayed no overt anti-Americanism, but his resistance to U.S. pressure on a variety of issues were taken as that by the U.S. government and business interests. He did not follow through on promises made in his name, perhaps by his brother
Gustavo A. Madero
, to turn Mexico's oil industry over to the
Standard Oil Company
. He refused to satisfy U.S. demands for compensation for life and property outside of a bilateral commission. He planned to institute universal male military service, which would have strengthened Mexico's position against foreign powers. Furthermore, Madero's lifting of restrictions on labor organizing had resulted in strikes, which had an impact on U.S. companies in Mexico. Likewise, Madero was not deviating from President Diaz's firmness against demands that infringed on Mexican sovereignty and domestic policy, but the U.S. pressed the issues.
The United States' position towards the Madero regime grew increasingly hostile. The U.S. Ambassador,
Henry Lane Wilson
conducted a campaign of anti-Madero propaganda and disinformation, aimed at alarming the American residents, a campaign against Madero in U.S. newspapers. The U.S. government and business interests, too, increasingly backed rebellions against Madero.
[71]
Germany and the Madero government
[
edit
]
Germany had business interests in Mexico, in banking and in exports from Germany, but it was reluctant to challenge the U.S. as the premier foreign arbiter in Mexico. In the period before the outbreak of World War I in August 1914, it followed the lead of the U.S. of initially being optimistic about Madero's moderation against revolutionary tendencies. But when U.S. turned against Madero, the U.S. ambassador and the German ambassador
Paul von Hintze
were in close contact. Hintze's reports on the situation in Mexico during the Madero presidency were a rich source of information about the regime. Although the U.S. attempted to draw Germany as well as Great Britain into intervention in Mexico, both held back. They also sought to prevent the U.S. from intervening itself. Hintze had a low opinion of Felix Diaz, and saw the head of the Mexican Federal Army,
Victoriano Huerta
, as an appropriate candidate as a military dictator. That view dictated his actions as a plan for a coup was hatched in early 1913.
[72]
Successful coup against Madero
[
edit
]
In early 1913, General
Felix Diaz
(Porfirio Diaz's nephew) and General
Bernardo Reyes
plotted the overthrow of Madero. Now known in Mexican history as the
Ten Tragic Days
, from 9 to 19 February events in the capital led to the overthrow and murder of Madero and his vice president. Rebel forces bombarded the National Palace and downtown Mexico City from the military arsenal (
ciudadela
). Madero's loyalists initially held their ground, but Madero's commander, General
Victoriano Huerta
secretly switched sides to support the rebels. Madero's decision to appoint Huerta as commander of forces in Mexico City was one "for which he would pay for with his life."
[74]
Madero and his vice president were arrested. Under pressure Madero resigned the presidency, with the expectation that he would go into exile, as had President Diaz in May 1911. Madero's brother and advisor
Gustavo A. Madero
was kidnapped off the street, tortured, and killed. Following Huerta's coup d'etat on 18 February 1913, Madero was forced to resign. After a 45-minute term of office,
Pedro Lascurain
was replaced by Huerta, who took over the presidency later that day.
[75]
Following his forced resignation, Madero and his Vice-president
Jose Maria Pino Suarez
were kept under guard in the National Palace. On the evening of 22 February, they were told that they were to be transferred to the main city penitentiary, where they would be safer. At 11:15 pm, reporters waiting outside the National Palace saw two cars containing Madero and Suarez emerge from the main gate under a heavy escort commanded by Major Francisco Cardenas, an officer of the
rurales
.
[76]
The journalists on foot were outdistanced by the motor vehicles, which were driven towards the penitentiary. The correspondent for the
New York World
was approaching the prison when he heard a volley of shots. Behind the building, he found the two cars with the bodies of Madero and Suarez nearby, surrounded by soldiers and gendarmes. Major Cardenas subsequently told reporters that the cars and their escort had been fired on by a group, as they neared the penitentiary. The two prisoners had leapt from the vehicles and ran towards their presumed rescuers. They had however been killed in the cross-fire.
[77]
This account was treated with general disbelief, although the American ambassador
Henry Lane Wilson
, a strong supporter of Huerta, reported to Washington that, "I am disposed to accept the (Huerta) government's version of the affair and consider it a closed incident".
[78]
President Madero, dead at 39, was buried quietly in the French cemetery of Mexico City. A series of contemporary photographs taken by Manuel Ramos show Maderos's coffin being carried from the penitentiary and placed on a special funeral tram car for transportation to the cemetery.
[79]
Only his close family were permitted to attend, leaving for Cuba immediately after. Following Huerta's overthrow, Francisco Cardenas fled to Guatemala where he committed suicide in 1920 after the new Mexican government had requested his extradition to stand trial for the murder of Madero.
[80]
[81]
Aftermath of coup
[
edit
]
There was shock at Madero's murder, but there were many, including Mexican elites and foreign entrepreneurs and governments, who saw the coup and the emergence of General Huerta as the desired strongman to return order to Mexico. Among elites in Mexico, Madero's death was a cause of rejoicing, seeing the time since Diaz's resignation as one of political instability and economic uncertainty. Ordinary Mexicans in the capital, however, were dismayed by the coup, since many considered Madero a friend, but their feelings did not translate into concrete action against the Huerta regime.
[82]
In northern Mexico, Madero's overthrow and martyrdom united forces against Huerta's usurpation of power. Governor of Coahuila,
Venustiano Carranza
refused to support the new regime although most state governors had. He brought together a coalition of revolutionaries under the banner of the Mexican Constitution, so that the
Constitutionalist Army
fought for the principles of constitutional democracy that Madero embraced. In southern Mexico, Zapata had been in rebellion against the Madero government for its slow action on land reform and continued in rebellion against the Huerta regime. However, Zapata repudiated his former high opinion of fellow revolutionary Pascual Orozco, who had also rebelled against Madero, when Orozco allied with Huerta. Madero's anti-reelectionist movement had mobilized revolutionary action that led to the resignation of Diaz. Madero's overthrow and murder during the Ten Tragic Days was a prelude to further years of civil war.
For Mexicans hopeful of positive change with the Madero presidency, his performance in office was not inspiring, but as a martyr to the revolution ousted and murdered by reactionary forces with the aid of the United States ambassador, he became a powerful unifying force. The
Governor of Coahuila
, Madero's home state, became the leader of the northern revolutionaries opposing the Huerta.
Venustiano Carranza
had been put in office by Madero. Carranza named the broad-based, anti-Huerta northern coalition the Constitutionalist Army, invoking the Mexican Constitution of 1857 and rule of law that they hoped to restore. In 1915, a Constitutionalist supporter created a chart outlining the political leaders of the time, calling Madero "The Great Democrat, elected president by the unanimous will of the people." But by 1917, when the Constitutionalists had emerged as the winning faction of the revolution, Carranza began reshaping the historical narrative of the revolution that excluded Madero entirely. For Carranza, the revolution had three periods, with the start date being the armed struggle against Huerta, led by himself. After three years as constitutional president, Carranza himself was ousted and killed in a 1920 coup by Sonoran revolutionary generals,
Alvaro Obregon
,
Plutarco Elias Calles
, and
Adolfo de la Huerta
. Madero's status as a hero of the revolution was restored by the Sonoran dynasty, which deliberately constructed a narrative of historical memory that endures. 20 November, the day that Madero set in the Plan of San Luis Potosi for the rebellion against Porfirio Diaz, became a
national day of celebration
.
[83]
Historical memory and popular culture
[
edit
]
Madero was known as "The Apostle of Democracy," but "Madero the martyr meant more to the soul of Mexico."
[84]
Despite Madero's importance as a historical figure, there are relatively few memorials or monuments to him. It was not until the
Monument to the Revolution
was completed in 1938 that Madero had a public resting place. He had been interred in the French cemetery in Mexico City after his death. His tomb had been an informal pilgrimage site on the anniversary of his murder (22 February) and the proclamation of his Plan of San Luis Potosi (20 November), which launched the Mexican Revolution.
[85]
Initially, the monument to the Revolution held the remains of Madero, Carranza, and Villa and was planned as a collective commemoration of the Revolution, not individual revolutionaries. Although it was completed on 20 November 1938, there was no inaugural ceremony.
[86]
The date of Madero's Plan of San Luis Potosi, 20 November, was a fixed official holiday in Mexico,
Revolution Day
, but a 2005 change in the law makes the third Monday in November the day of commemoration. During the presidency of Venustiano Carranza, he ignored 20 November and commemorated 26 March, the anniversary of his
Plan de Guadalupe
.
[87]
The
Mexico City Metro
has a stop named for Madero's vice president,
Metro Pino Suarez
, but not one to Madero. General
Alvaro Obregon
laid a foundation stone on the 10th anniversary of Madero's death of a planned Madero statue in the zocalo, but the statue was never built. A statue was erected in 1956 at a downtown intersection in Mexico City and has been moved to the presidential residence,
Los Pinos
, not easily viewable by the public.
[88]
An exception is Avenida Madero in Mexico City. One contemporaneous honor by General Pancho Villa remains in Mexico City. On the morning of 8 December 1914, he declared that the street leading from the Zocalo in Mexico City towards the
Paseo de la Reforma
would be named for Madero. Still officially called
Francisco I. Madero Avenue
, but commonly known simply as Madero street, it is one of the most popular and historically significant streets in the city. It was
pedestrianised
in 2009.
Mexican artist
Jose Guadalupe Posada
created an
etching
for a
broadside
,
[89]
produced on the occasion of Madero's election in 1910, titled "Calavera de Madero" portraying Madero as a
calavera
.
Madero appears in the films
Viva Villa!
(1934),
Villa Rides
(1968) and
Viva Zapata!
(1952).
In the novel
The Friends of Pancho Villa
(1996) by
James Carlos Blake
, Madero is a major character.
Along with
Hermila Galindo
and
Carmen Serdan
, Madero appears on the obverse of the
1000 Mexican peso
banknote issued from 2020.
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
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, 90?91.
- ^
"Album, Mexican Revolution"
.
- ^
Katz,
The Secret War in Mexico
, p. 96.
- ^
Krauze, Enrique.
Madero Vivo
. Mexico City: Clio, pp. 119?21
- ^
Knight, Alan (1990).
The Mexican Revolution. Volume 1. Porfirians, Liberals and Peasants
. U of Nebraska Press. p.
489
.
ISBN
0-8032-7770-9
.
- ^
Aitken, Ronald.
Revolution! Mexico 1910?20
, pp. 142?143, 586 03669 5
- ^
Aitken, Ronald.
Revolution! Mexico 1910?20
, page 144, 586 03669 5
- ^
"President Madero's coffin being placed in funeral car, Mexico City :: Mexico ? Photographs, Manuscripts, and Imprints"
.
digitalcollections.smu.edu
. Retrieved
15 May
2018
.
- ^
Aitken, Ronald.
Revolution! Mexico 1910?20
, p. 144, 586 03669 5
- ^
Montes Ayala, Francisco Gabriel (1993). Raul Oseguera Perez, ed. "Francisco Cardenas. Un hombre que cambio la history". Sahuayo, Michoacan: Impresos ABC.
- ^
Knight, Alan
.
The Mexican Revolution
, vol. 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1986, pp. 1?2.
- ^
Benjamin, Thomas,
La Revolucion
: Mexico's Great Revolution as Memory, Myth, and History
. Austin: University of Texas Press 2000, 64, 68?69
- ^
quoted in Benjamin, Thomas.
La Revolucion: Mexico's Great Revolution as Memory, Myth, and History
. Austin: University of Texas Press 2000, p. 50
- ^
Benjamin,
La Revolucion
, p. 124
- ^
Benjamin,
La Revolucion
, pp. 131?32.
- ^
Benjamin,
La Revolucion
, p. 59
- ^
Benjamin,
La Revolucion
pp. 124, 195
- ^
"C50 Calavera de D. Francisco I. Madero"
.
www.hawaii.edu
. Retrieved
15 May
2018
.
Further reading
[
edit
]
- Caballero, Raymond (2017).
Orozco: Life and Death of a Mexican Revolutionary
. Chicago: University of Oklahoma Press.
- Caballero, Raymond (2015).
Lynching Pascual Orozco, Mexican Revolutionary Hero and Paradox
. Create Space.
ISBN
978-1514382509
.
- Cumberland, Charles C.
Mexican Revolution: Genesis under Madero
. Austin: University of Texas Press 1952.
- Katz, Friedrich
.
The Secret War in Mexico: Europe, the United States, and the Mexican Revolution
. Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1981.
- Knight, Alan
.
The Mexican Revolution
, 2 volumes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1986.
- Krauze, Enrique
,
Mexico: Biography of Power
. New York: HarperCollins 1997.
ISBN
0-06-016325-9
- Ross, Stanley R.
Francisco I. Madero, Apostle of Democracy
. New York: Columbia University Press 1955.
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