Military and diplomacy subjects of the Byzantine empire
A reason for the longevity of the
Byzantine Empire
is how they managed their
foreign relations
.
The army
and later
its navy
were the primary methods with the evolved traditions of the Roman Empire, however
Byzantine diplomacy
which eventuated with their many
treaties
was used extensively as well.
Byzantine and Persian-Turk relations
[
edit
]
Gokturk relations: 6th?7th centuries
[
edit
]
The
Gokturks
of the
First Turkic Khaganate
, which came to prominence in 552 CE, were the first Turkic state to use the name Turk politically.
[1]
They played a major role with the Byzantine Empire's relationship with the Persian
Sasanian Empire
.
[2]
The first contact is believed to be 563 and relates to the incident in 558 where the slaves of the Turks (the
Pannonian Avars
) ran away during their war with the
Hephthalites
.
[2]
[3]
The second contact occurred when Maniah, a
Sogdian
diplomat, convinced
Istami
(known as Silziboulos in Greek writings
[4]
) of the Gokturks to send an embassy directly to the Byzantine Empire's capital Constantinople, which arrived in 568 and offered silk as a gift to emperor
Justin II
. While the Sogdians were only interested in trade, the Turks in the embassy proposed an alliance against the Persians which Justin agreed to.
[5]
The Persians had previously broken their alliance with the Turks due to the competitive threat they represented.
[6]
This alliance guaranteed the arrival of west-bound silks from China
[7]
and increased the risk of a war on two fronts for the Persians, with hostilities that would eventuate with the
Byzantine?Sasanian War of 572?591
.
[8]
In 569 an embassy led by
Zemarchus
occurred which was well received and likely solidified their alliance for war.
[2]
[9]
Another set of embassies occurred in 575?576 led by Valentine which were received with hostility by
Turxanthos
due to alleged treachery.
[3]
They required the members of the Byzantine delegation at the funeral of Istami to lacerate their faces to humiliate them.
[10]
The subsequent hostility shown by the new ruler
Tardu
[10]
[11]
would be matched in Byzantine writings.
[12]
With the insults reflecting a breakdown of the alliance, the likely cause is that the anger was due to the Turks not having their expectations met from their agreements and realising they were being used when they no longer aligned with the current goals of the Byzantine Empire (who correspondingly lacked trust in the Turks as partners).
[2]
Years later, they would collaborate again when their interest aligned. The Turks attacked the Avars when they sacked a Byzantine city in the Balkans (
Anchialos
in 584). Toward the end of the
Byzantine?Sasanian War of 602?628
, the Turks allied with the Byzantine Empire and played a decisive role with the
Third Perso-Turkic War
.
The Sasanian Empire succeeded the
Parthian Empire
, the traditional arch-rival of the Roman Empire. They were recognized as one of the leading world powers alongside its main rival the Byzantine Empire. This was from the overthrow of the Parthian dynasty in the 3rd century by
Ardashir I
until their total collapse against the Arabs.
[13]
There would be many wars between the rivals during this period.
The Byzantine Empire's final war weakened the Sasanian Empire which set up its destruction by the Arabs. The
Byzantine?Sasanian War of 602?628
, which included the
siege of the Byzantine capital Constantinople
, ended with both sides having drastically exhausted their human and material resources. In 627,
allied with Turks
,
Heraclius
invaded the heartland of Persia.
A civil war
broke out in Persia, during which the Persians killed their king, and sued for peace. By the end of the conflict, both sides were weakened. Consequently, they were vulnerable to the sudden emergence of the Islamic
Rashidun Caliphate
, whose forces invaded both empires only a few years after the war. The
Muslim armies
swiftly
conquered
the
entire Sasanian Empire
as well as the Byzantine
territories in the Levant
,
the Caucasus
,
Egypt
, and
North Africa
.
Seljuk relations: 11th?13th centuries
[
edit
]
The
Seljuk Turks
was a
Sunni Muslim
dynasty from the
Qiniq
branch of the
Oghuz Turks
.
[14]
They gradually became
Persianate
and contributed to the
Turco-Persian tradition
[15]
[16]
in the medieval
Middle East
and
Central Asia
. The Seljuks established both the
Seljuk Empire
and the
Sultanate of Rum
, which at their heights stretched from modern day
Iran
to
Anatolia
, and were targets of the
First Crusade
.
After the conquest of territories in present-day Iran by the
Seljuq Empire
, a large number of Oghuz Turks arrived on the Byzantine Empire's borderlands of
Armenia
in the late 1040s. Eager for plunder and distinction in the path of
jihad
, they began raiding the Byzantine provinces in Armenia.
[17]
At the same time, the eastern defenses of the Byzantine Empire had been weakened by Emperor
Constantine IX Monomachos
(
r.
1042?1055
), who allowed the
thematic
troops (provincial levies) of
Iberia
and
Mesopotamia
to relinquish their military obligations in favour of tax payments.
[18]
As a consequence of this invasion, the
Battle of Kapetron
occurred in 1048.
Over the next century, the
Byzantine and Seljuk armies would fight many battles
, with the
Battle of Manzikert
in 1071 considered a turning point in the history of Anatolia. The legacy of this defeat would be the loss of the Byzantine Empire's Anatolian heartland.
[19]
[20]
The battle itself did not directly change the balance of power between the Byzantines and the Seljuks; however the ensuing civil war within the Byzantine Empire did, to the advantage of the Seljuks.
[21]
Emperor
Alexios I Komnenos
sent envoys that would have a large impact on history. He was worried about the advances of the Seljuks in the aftermath of the Battle of Manzikert of 1071, who had reached as far west as
Nicaea
, and sent envoys to the
Council of Piacenza
in March 1095 to ask
Pope Urban II
for aid against the invading Turks.
[22]
What followed was the
First Crusade
. The Seljuk sultans bore the brunt of the
Crusades
and eventually succumbed to the
Mongol invasion
at the 1243
Battle of Kose Da?
. For the remainder of the 13th century, the Seljuks acted as vassals of the
Ilkhanate
.
[23]
Their power disintegrated during the second half of the 13th century. The last of the Seljuk vassal sultans of the Ilkhanate,
Mesud II
, was murdered in 1308.
Ottoman relations: 13th?15th centuries
[
edit
]
The dissolution of the Seljuk state left behind many small
Turkish principalities
. Among them were the
Ottoman dynasty
, which originated from the
Kayı tribe
[nb 1]
branch of the
Oghuz Turks
in 1299,
[25]
and which eventually conquered the rest and reunited Anatolia to
become the Ottoman Empire
. Over the next 150 years, the
Byzantine?Ottoman wars
were a series of decisive conflicts between the
Ottoman Turks
and
Byzantines
that led to the final destruction of the
Byzantine Empire
and the dominance of the
Ottoman Empire
.
In 1453, the Ottoman Empire
conquered Constantinople
, the capital city of the Byzantine Empire. They followed by conquering its splinter states, such as the
Despotate of the Morea
in 1460, the
Empire of Trebizond
in 1461, and the
Principality of Theodoro
in 1475.
Byzantine and Arab relations
[
edit
]
Taking advantage of the empire's weakness after the
Revolt of Thomas the Slav
in the early 820s, the Arabs re-emerged and
captured Crete
. They also successfully attacked Sicily, but in 863 general
Petronas
gained a decisive victory at the
Battle of Lalakaon
against
Umar al-Aqta
, the
emir
of Melitene (
Malatya
). Under the leadership of Emperor
Krum
, the Bulgarian threat also re-emerged, but in 815?816 Krum's son,
Omurtag
, signed a
peace treaty
with
Leo V
.
[26]
In the 830s the
Abbasid Caliphate
started military excursions culminating with a victory in the
Sack of Amorium
. The Byzantines counter-attacked and
sacked Damietta
in Egypt. The Abbasid Caliphate responded by sending troops into Anatolia again, sacking and marauding until they were eventually annihilated by the Byzantines at the
Battle of Lalakaon
in 863.
In the early years of
Basil I
's reign, Arab raids on the coasts of Dalmatia and the
siege of Ragusa (866?868)
were defeated, and the region once again came under secure Byzantine control. This enabled Byzantine missionaries to penetrate to the interior and
convert the Serbs
and the principalities of modern-day
Herzegovina
and
Montenegro
to Christianity.
[27]
By contrast, the Byzantine position in
Southern Italy
was gradually consolidated; by 873
Bari
was once again under Byzantine rule, and most of Southern Italy remained in the empire for the next 200 years.
[27]
[28]
On the more important eastern front, the empire rebuilt its defences and went on the offensive. The
Paulicians
were defeated at the
Battle of Bathys Ryax
and their capital of Tephrike (
Divrigi
) taken, while the offensive against the Abbasid Caliphate began with the recapture of
Samosata
.
[27]
Under Basil's son and successor,
Leo VI the Wise
, the gains in the east against the enfeebled Abbasid Caliphate continued.
Sicily was lost
to the Arabs in 902, and in 904
Thessaloniki
, the empire's second city,
was sacked
by an Arab fleet. The naval weakness of the empire was rectified. Despite this revenge, the Byzantines were still unable to strike a decisive blow against the Muslims, who inflicted a crushing defeat on the imperial forces when they attempted to regain
Crete
in 911.
[29]
The death of the Bulgarian Emperor
Simeon I
in 927 severely weakened the Bulgarians, allowing the Byzantines to concentrate on the eastern front.
[30]
Melitene
was permanently recaptured in 934, and in 943 the famous general
John Kourkouas
continued the offensive in Mesopotamia with some noteworthy victories, culminating in the reconquest of
Edessa
. Kourkouas was especially celebrated for returning to Constantinople the venerated
Mandylion
, a relic purportedly imprinted with a portrait of Jesus.
[31]
The soldier-emperors
Nikephoros II Phokas
(
r.
963?969
) and
John I Tzimiskes
(969?976) expanded the empire well into Syria, defeating the emirs of northwest
Iraq
. Nikephoros
took Aleppo
in 962, and the Arabs were decisively expelled from Crete in 963. The recapture of Crete in the
siege of Chandax
put an end to Arab raids in the Aegean, allowing mainland Greece to flourish again.
Cyprus
was permanently retaken in 965, and the successes of Nikephoros culminated in 969 with the
siege of Antioch
and its recapture, which he incorporated as a province of the empire.
[32]
His successor John Tzimiskes recaptured Damascus,
Beirut
,
Acre
,
Sidon
,
Caesarea
and
Tiberias
, putting Byzantine armies within striking distance of Jerusalem, although the Muslim power centres in Iraq and Egypt were left untouched.
[33]
After much campaigning in the north, the last Arab threat to Byzantium, the rich province of Sicily, was targeted in 1025 by
Basil II
, who died before the expedition could be completed. By that time the empire stretched from the straits of
Messina
to the
Euphrates
and from the Danube to Syria.
[34]
Byzantine and Western Europe relations
[
edit
]
The Holy See, as we know it today, was under the formal authority of the Byzantine Empire until the 8th century. The
apostolic see
of Diocese of Rome was established in the
1st century
. However, the legal status of the Christian Church and its property was not recognised until the
Edict of Milan
in 313 by
Constantine the Great
, and it became the
state church of the Roman Empire
by the
Edict of Thessalonica
in 380 by Emperor
Theodosius I
. Based in
Ravenna
, the
Praetorian prefecture of Italy
following the death of Constantine from 337 had authority over the diocese of Rome, including after the
fall of the Western Roman Empire
in 476 and was replaced with the
Exarchate of Ravenna
(and the
Duchy of Rome
) from 584 to 751 following the
Lombard
invasion in 568.
The Holy See began to exhibit independence in the 5th century and a rivalry. A crisis began in 726, called the
Byzantine Iconoclasm
, that had the Bishop of Rome,
Pope Gregory II
, formally in opposition to the emperor
Leo III the Isaurian
. Further, following the loss of Castle of
Sutri
that was part Byzantine territory, the Pope negotiated back the lost territory with the Lombards. It would be the first time land was granted outside of Duchy of Rome and is known as the
Donation of Sutri
in 728 of
King
Liutprand
of the
Lombards
.
Sovereignty
was established by the
Donation of Pepin
in 756 by
King
Pepin
of the
Franks
, which began the
Papal States
. Tensions increased with the Byzantine Empire when
Pope Leo III
crowned
Charlemagne
as Roman Emperor by
translatio imperii
in 800, a title that had been used by the Byzantine emperor in Constantinople since the time of Constantine. The
Donation of Constantine
, composed probably in the 8th century, was a forged Roman imperial decree by emperor Constantine supposedly transferred authority over Rome and the western part of the Roman Empire to the Pope.
The struggle between the imperial state and Patriarch of Constantinople with the
See of Rome
continued through the Macedonian period, spurred by the question of religious supremacy over the
newly Christianised
state of Bulgaria.
[35]
Under the Komnenoi, the empire played a key role in the
Crusades
within the Holy Land, which Alexios I had helped bring about, while also exerting enormous cultural and political influence in Europe, the
Near East
, and the lands around the Mediterranean Sea under John and Manuel. Contact between Byzantium and the "Latin" West, including the
Crusader states
, increased significantly during the Komnenian period. Venetian and other Italian traders became resident in large numbers in Constantinople and the empire (there were an estimated 60,000 Latins in Constantinople alone, out of a population of three to four hundred thousand), and their presence together with the numerous Latin mercenaries who were employed by Manuel helped to spread Byzantine technology, art, literature and culture throughout the Latin West, while also leading to a flow of Western ideas and customs into the empire.
[36]
The rivalry developed into the 1054
East?West Schism
. It led to the permanent split of the two churches into the modern-day
Catholic Church
and
Eastern Orthodox Churches
. Although there was a formal declaration of institutional separation on 16 July, when three papal legates entered the Hagia Sophia during Divine Liturgy on a Saturday afternoon and placed a
bull
of excommunication on the altar,
[37]
the so-called Great Schism was actually the culmination of centuries of gradual separation.
[38]
The Byzantine emperors appealed to the West for help in the final years of its existence, but the Pope would only consider sending aid in return for a reunion of the Eastern Orthodox Church with the
See of Rome
. Church unity was considered, and occasionally accomplished by imperial decree, but the Orthodox citizenry and clergy intensely resented the authority of Rome and the
Latin Rite
.
[39]
Emperor
Alexios I Komnenos
, worried about the advances of the Seljuks in the aftermath of the Battle of Manzikert of 1071 who had reached as far west as
Nicaea
, sent envoys to the
Council of Piacenza
in March 1095 to ask
Pope Urban II
for aid against the invading Turks.
[22]
What followed was the
First Crusade
. Some troops arrived to bolster the Christian defence of Constantinople, but most Western rulers, distracted by their own affairs, did nothing as the Ottomans picked apart the remaining Byzantine territories.
[40]
Franks
relations: 5th?9th centuries
[
edit
]
Although the Frankish name does not appear until the 3rd century, at least some of the original Frankish tribes had long been known to the Romans under their own names, both as allies providing soldiers, and as enemies. They would eventually form into the
Merovingian dynasty
and
Carolingian dynasty
.
The Franks, in partnership with the Pope, distinguished a new Roman empire and rival power centre. The
Libri Carolini
published in the 790s made the first mention of the term "Empire of the Greeks" (Latin:
Imperium Graecorum
) and
Imperator Graecorum
(Emperor of the Greeks) was an insult first formally attributed to
Pope John XIII
.
[41]
[42]
Western medieval sources thereafter beginning to refer to the Byzantine Empire as such.
[43]
This was done to reestablish equal imperial dignity to the
Empire of the Franks
and what would later become known as the
Holy Roman Empire
.
[44]
[45]
It would not be until the 19th century that the term "Empire of the Greeks" was replaced with the now modern term "Byzantine Empire".
[46]
[47]
Following the
Treaty of Verdun
in
843
, the Frankish Realm was divided into three separate kingdoms:
West Francia
,
Middle Francia
and
East Francia
. In
870
, Middle Francia was partitioned again, with most of its territory being divided among West and East Francia, which would hence form the nuclei of the future
Kingdom of France
and the
Holy Roman Empire
respectively, with West Francia (
France
) eventually retaining the
choronym
.
Venice started as a Roman city in 421 CE. Following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire and the reconquest of the Italian peninsula under
Justinian I
, it would come under the jurisdiction of the Byzantine Empire through the
Duchy of Ventia
under the
Exarchate of Ravenna
in 584. The changing politics of the Frankish Empire began to change the factional divisions of Venice. The pro-Frankish fraction seized power and elected
Obelerio degli Antenori
but he would subsequently flee and the failed siege by
Pepin of Italy
became a turning point for Venice. The independence of Venice was possibly confirmed by the
Pax Nicephori
, an agreement between
Charlemagne
and
Nicephorus
, which recognized Venice as Byzantine territory and also recognized the city's trading rights along the Adriatic coast, as Charlemagne previously ordered the Pope to expel the Venetians from the
Pentapolis
.
[48]
The Byzantine Empire's relationship with Venice evolved into dependence. Around 841, the
Republic of Venice
sent a fleet of 60 galleys (each carrying 200 men) to assist the Byzantines in driving the
Arabs
from
Crotone
, but failed.
[49]
The
Golden Bull of 1082
issued by
Alexios I Komnenos
granted Venenian merchants with tax exempt trading rights throughout the
Byzantine Empire
in return for their defense of the
Adriatic Sea
against the
Normans
.
[50]
Subsequent extensions of these privileges and the Empire's
naval impotence
at the time resulted in a virtual maritime monopoly and stranglehold over the Empire by the Venetians.
[51]
Subsequent Byzantine Emperors tried to reduce Venice's influence which eventually made them enemies.
John II Komnenos
tried to refuse the 1082 treaty but was forced to come to terms after a retaliation.
Manuel I Komnenos
would go a step further and conclude agreements with Venice's rivals:
Pisa
,
Genoa
and
Amalfi
.
[52]
Gradually, all four Italian cities were also allowed to establish their own quarters in the northern part of Constantinople itself, towards the
Golden Horn
. This created tensions and the subsequent imprisonment of Venetian merchants led to the
Byzantine?Venetian war of 1171
that devastated the Venetian fleet. The subsequent predominance of the Italian merchants caused economic and social upheaval in the Byzantine Empire and this would lead to the 1182
Massacre of the Latins
. These events are noteworthy because they created the political background to the 1204
Sack of Constantinople
by the
fourth crusade
.
Crusader armies looted and destroyed parts of
Constantinople
, forever changing the
Byzantine Empire
. After the capture of the city, the
Latin Empire
(known to the Byzantines as the
Frankokratia
or the Latin Occupation)
[53]
was established and
Baldwin of Flanders
was crowned Emperor Baldwin I of Constantinople in the
Hagia Sophia
. After the city's sacking, most of the Byzantine Empire's territories were divided up among the Crusaders. Byzantine aristocrats also established a number of small independent splinter states, one of them being the
Empire of Nicaea
, which would eventually recapture Constantinople in 1261 and proclaim the reinstatement of the Empire.
Following the recapture of Constantinople in 1261, Venice's privileged position deteriorated. In 1268, the Byzantine Empire and the Republic of Venice
agreed to temporarily end the hostilities
which had erupted after Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos success in 1261. It would be renegotiated and extended for two years with the
Byzantine?Venetian treaty of 1277
. The
Byzantine?Venetian War (1296?1302)
was an offshoot of the second
Venetian?Genoese War of 1294?1299
.
Other notable events
Byzantine and Eastern Europe relations
[
edit
]
Bulgarian
relations: 7th?14th centuries
[
edit
]
Ending eighty years of peace between the two states, the powerful Bulgarian
Tsar
Simeon I
invaded in 894 but was pushed back by the Byzantines, who sailed up the
Black Sea
to attack the Bulgarian rear, enlisting the support of the
Hungarians
.
[54]
The Byzantines were defeated at the
Battle of Boulgarophygon
in 896 and agreed to pay annual subsidies to the Bulgarians.
[29]
Leo the Wise
died in 912, and hostilities resumed as Simeon marched to Constantinople at the head of a large army.
[55]
Although the walls of the city were impregnable, the Byzantine administration was in disarray and Simeon was invited into the city, where he was granted the crown of
basileus
(emperor) of Bulgaria and had the young Emperor
Constantine VII
marry one of his daughters. When a revolt in Constantinople halted his dynastic project, he again invaded Thrace and conquered
Adrianople
.
[56]
The empire now faced the problem of a powerful Christian state within a few days' marching distance from Constantinople,
[35]
as well as having to fight on two fronts.
[29]
A great imperial expedition under
Leo Phocas
and
Romanos I Lekapenos
ended with another crushing Byzantine defeat at the
Battle of Achelous
in 917, and the following year the Bulgarians were free to ravage northern Greece. Adrianople was plundered again in 923, and a Bulgarian army laid siege to Constantinople in 924. Simeon died suddenly in 927 and Bulgarian power collapsed with him. Bulgaria and Byzantium entered a long period of peaceful relations, and the empire was free to concentrate on the eastern front against the Muslims.
[57]
In 968, Bulgaria was overrun by the
Rus'
under
Sviatoslav I
, but three years later,
John I Tzimiskes
defeated the Rus'
and re-incorporated eastern Bulgaria into the Byzantine Empire.
[58]
Bulgarian resistance revived under the
Cometopuli dynasty
, but Emperor
Basil II
(
r.
976?1025
) made the submission of the Bulgarians his primary goal.
[59]
Basil's first expedition against Bulgaria resulted in a defeat at the
Gates of Trajan
. For the next few years, the emperor was preoccupied with internal revolts in Anatolia, while the Bulgarians expanded their realm in the Balkans. The war dragged on for nearly twenty years. The Byzantine victories of
Spercheios
and
Skopje
decisively weakened the Bulgarian army, and in annual campaigns Basil methodically reduced the Bulgarian strongholds.
[59]
At the
Battle of Kleidion
in 1014 the Bulgarians were annihilated: their army was captured, and it is said that 99 out of every 100 men were blinded, with the hundredth man left with one eye so he could lead his compatriots home. When Tsar
Samuil
saw the broken remains of his once formidable army, he died of shock. By 1018, the last Bulgarian strongholds had surrendered, and the country became part of the empire.
[59]
This victory restored the Danube frontier, which had not been held since the days of the Emperor Heraclius.
[34]
See also
Rus
relations: 9th?15th centuries
[
edit
]
Between 850 and 1100, the empire developed a mixed relationship with the
Kievan Rus'
, which had emerged to the north across the Black Sea.
[60]
This relationship had long-lasting repercussions in the history of the
East Slavs
, and the empire quickly became the main
trading and cultural partner
for
Kiev
. The Rus' launched their first
attack against Constantinople
in 860, pillaging the suburbs of the city. In 941,
they appeared on the Asian shore
of the Bosphorus, but this time they were crushed, an indication of the improvements in the Byzantine military position after 907, when
only diplomacy had been able to push back the invaders
.
Basil II
could not ignore the emerging power of the Rus', and following the example of his predecessors he used religion as a means for achieving political purposes.
[61]
Rus'?Byzantine relations became closer following the marriage of
Anna Porphyrogeneta
to
Vladimir the Great
in 988, and the subsequent
Christianisation of the Rus'
.
[60]
Byzantine priests, architects, and artists were invited to work on numerous cathedrals and churches around Rus', expanding Byzantine cultural influence even further, while numerous Rus' served in the Byzantine army as mercenaries, most notably as the famous
Varangian Guard
.
[60]
Even after the Christianisation of the Rus', relations were not always friendly. The most serious conflict between the two powers was an
invasion of Bulgaria in 968
, but several Rus' raiding expeditions against the Byzantine cities of the Black Sea coast and Constantinople are also recorded. Although most were repulsed, they were often followed by treaties that were generally favourable to the Rus', such as the one concluded at the end of
the war of 1043
, during which the Rus' indicated their ambitions to compete with the Byzantines as an independent power.
[61]
Other relations
[
edit
]
Byzantine and
Vandal
relations: 3rd?7th centuries
[
edit
]
Relations between the Byzantine Empire and the
Kingdom of the Vandals
were marked by periodic outbursts of hostility between the two powers. The Vandals seized
Carthage
and
Northern Africa
from the western Roman empire in 439 A.D. The attack caused the Byzantines to fear a potential Vandalic attack on Constantinople and take precautions against it. An expedition was briefly launched against them in 441, but recalled soon after due to other pressures on the state.
[62]
However, the Vandals would begin launching raids against Byzantium in the middle of the century.
[63]
The first major military action against them was the disastrous expedition launched in tandem with the forces of the western empire in 469. At
Cape Bon
, over a
100 Roman ships
were destroyed by Vandal fire ships, debatably due to the treachery or incompetence of the Roman commander,
Basiliscus
. This failure would eventually spell the doom of the western empire, while causing a massive drain on the resources of the Eastern empire.
[64]
The last major confrontation between the Vandals and the Byzantines would come in the
Vandalic War
, wherein Byzantine troops under the command of
Belisarius
successfully invaded North Africa and destroyed the Vandalic kingdom under
Gelimer
. The Vandal state was annexed into Byzantine territory.
[65]
See also
[
edit
]
Notes
[
edit
]
- ^
A claim which has come under criticism from many historians, who argue either that the Kayı genealogy was fabricated in the fifteenth century, or that there is otherwise insufficient evidence to believe in it.
[24]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
West, Barbara A. (19 May 2010).
Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania
. Infobase Publishing. p. 829.
ISBN
978-1-4381-1913-7
.
The first people to use the ethnonym
Turk
to refer to themselves were the Turuk people of the Gokturk Khanate in the mid sixth-century
- ^
a
b
c
d
Qiang, Li; Kordosis, Stefanos (2018).
"The Geopolitics on the Silk Road: Resurveying the Relationship of the Western Turks with Byzantium through Their Diplomatic Communications"
.
Medieval Worlds
. medieval worlds (8): 109?125.
doi
:
10.1553/medievalworlds_no8_2018s109
.
ISSN
2412-3196
.
- ^
a
b
Sinor, Dennis (1996).
The First Turk Empire (553?682)
. UNESCO. pp. 327?332.
ISBN
978-92-3-103211-0
. Retrieved
2022-01-23
.
- ^
Eliot, C. (1908). Turkey in Europe. United Kingdom: E. Arnold. Page 76
- ^
Howard, Michael C. (2012).
Transnationalism in ancient and medieval societies: the role of cross-border trade and travel
. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland. p. 133.
ISBN
978-0-7864-9033-2
.
OCLC
779849477
.
- ^
Erdemir, Hatice (2004-08-20).
"The Nature of Turko-Byzantine Relations in the Sixth Century Ad"
.
Belleten
.
68
(252): 427?428.
doi
:
10.37879/belleten.2004.423
.
ISSN
0041-4255
.
S2CID
131539566
.
- ^
Michael Adas, ed. (2001).
Agricultural and pastoral societies in ancient and classical history
. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. p. 168.
ISBN
1-56639-831-2
.
OCLC
44493265
.
- ^
Daryaee, Touraj (2021).
Sasanian Iran in the Context of Late Antiquity The Bahari Lecture Series at the University of Oxford
. Boston: Brill. p. 10.
ISBN
978-90-04-46066-9
.
OCLC
1250074550
.
- ^
Whittow, Mark (2018-04-26), Di Cosmo, Nicola; Maas, Michael (eds.),
"Byzantium's Eurasian Policy in the Age of the Turk Empire"
,
Empires and Exchanges in Eurasian Late Antiquity
(1 ed.), Cambridge University Press, pp. 271?286,
doi
:
10.1017/9781316146040.021
,
ISBN
978-1-316-14604-0
, retrieved
2022-01-23
,
"
Mark Whittow
directly suggests that this embassy reached an agreement for a joint attack on the Persians planned for 573.
- ^
a
b
Menander, Protector, activeth century (1985).
The history of Menander the Guardsman
. R. C. Blockley. Liverpool, Great Britain: F. Cairns. pp. 173?177.
ISBN
0-905205-25-1
.
OCLC
14355502
.
{{
cite book
}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
link
)
- ^
Peter B. Golden (2011).
Central Asia in World History
. p. 39.
At a subsequent embassy, Tardu yelled at Valentine in anger, venting his rage saying "Are you not those very Romans who use ten tongues and lie with all of them?
- ^
Maurice,
Strategikon
, ed. Dennis and Gamillscheg, 360;
George T. Dennis, ed. (1984).
Maurice's Strategikon: handbook of Byzantine military strategy
. Philadelphia. p. 116.
ISBN
0-8122-7899-2
.
OCLC
9575024
.
They [the Turks] were superstitious, treacherous, foul, faithless, possessed by an insatiate desire for riches. They scorn their oath, do not observe agreements, and are not satisfied by gifts. Even before they accept the gift, they are making plans for treachery and betrayal of their agreements. They are clever at estimating suitable opportunities to do this and taking prompt advantage of them. They prefer to prevail over their enemies not so much by force as by deceit, surprise attacks, and cutting off supplies.
{{
cite book
}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
link
)
- ^
Norman A. Stillman
The Jews of Arab Lands
pp 22 Jewish Publication Society, 1979
ISBN
0827611552
- ^
Lars Johanson; Eva Agnes Csato Johanson (2015).
The Turkic Languages
. p. 25.
The name 'Seljuk is a political rather than ethnic name. It derives from Sel?iik, born Toqaq Temir Yally, a war-lord (sil-ba?i), from the Qiniq tribal grouping of the Oghuz. Seljuk, in the rough and tumble of internal Oghuz politics, fled to Jand, c.985, after falling out with his overlord.
- ^
Grousset, Rene,
The Empire of the Steppes
, (Rutgers University Press, 1991), 161,164; "renewed the Seljuk attempt to found a great Turko-Persian empire in eastern Iran..", "It is to be noted that the Seljuks, those Turkomans who became sultans of Persia, did not Turkify Persia-no doubt because they did not wish to do so. On the contrary, it was they who voluntarily became Persians and who, in the manner of the great old Sassanid kings, strove to protect the Iranian populations from the plundering of Ghuzz bands and save Iranian culture from the Turkoman menace."
- ^
Nishapuri, Zahir al-Din Nishapuri (2001), "The History of the Seljuq Turks from the Jami' al-Tawarikh: An Ilkhanid Adaptation of the
Saljuq-nama
of Zahir al-Din Nishapuri," Partial tr. K.A. Luther, ed. C.E. Bosworth, Richmond, UK. K.A. Luther, p. 9: "[T]he Turks were illiterate and uncultivated when they arrived in Khurasan and had to depend on Iranian scribes, poets, jurists and theologians to man the institution of the Empire"
- ^
Beihammer, Alexander Daniel (2017).
Byzantium and the emergence of Muslim-Turkish Anatolia, ca. 1040?1130
. London. pp. 74?77.
ISBN
978-1-315-27103-3
.
OCLC
973223067
.
{{
cite book
}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
link
)
- ^
Vryonis, Speros (1971).
The decline of medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor and the process of Islamization from the eleventh through the fifteenth century
. Mazal Holocaust Collection. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 86.
ISBN
0-520-01597-5
.
OCLC
174800
.
- ^
Fleet, Kate (2009).
The Cambridge History of Turkey: Byzantium to Turkey, 1071?1453: Volume 1
(PDF)
. Cambridge University Press. p. 1.
"The defeat in August 1071 of the Byzantine emperor Romanos Diogenes by the Turkomans at the battle of Malazgirt (Manzikert) is taken as a turning point in the history of Anatolia and the Byzantine Empire. From this time the Byzantines were unable to stem the flow of the Turks into Anatolia and the slow process of Turkification had begun."
- ^
Asbridge, Thomas S. (2010).
The Crusades: the authoritative history of the war for the Holy Land
(1st ed.). New York: Ecco. p. 27.
ISBN
978-0-06-078728-8
.
OCLC
525318942
.
Thomas Asbridge
says: "In 1071, the Seljuqs crushed an imperial army at the Battle of Manzikert (in eastern
Asia Minor
), and though historians no longer consider this to have been an utterly cataclysmic reversal for the Greeks, it still was a stinging setback."
- ^
Mikaberidze, Alexander (2011).
Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia
. ABC-CLIO. p. 563.
ISBN
978-1-59884-336-1
.
- ^
a
b
Blumenthal, Uta-Renate (2006). "Piacenza, Council of (1095)". In
The Crusades ? An Encyclopedia
. pp. 956?957.
- ^
John Joseph Saunders,
The History of the Mongol Conquests
, (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1971), 79.
- ^
Kafadar, Cemal (1995).
Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State
. University of California Press. p. 122.
ISBN
978-0-520-20600-7
.
That they hailed from the Kayı branch of the O?uz confederacy seems to be a creative "rediscovery" in the genealogical concoction of the fifteenth century. It is missing not only in Ahmedi but also, and more importantly, in the Yah?i Fakih-A?ıkpa?azade narrative, which gives its own version of an elaborate genealogical family tree going back to Noah. If there was a particularly significant claim to Kayı lineage, it is hard to imagine that Yah?i Fakih would not have heard of it
- Lowry, Heath (2003).
The Nature of the Early Ottoman State
. SUNY Press. p. 78.
ISBN
0-7914-5636-6
.
Based on these charters, all of which were drawn up between 1324 and 1360 (almost one hundred fifty years prior to the emergence of the Ottoman dynastic myth identifying them as members of the Kayı branch of the Oguz federation of Turkish tribes), we may posit that...
- Shaw, Stanford (1976).
History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey
. Cambridge University Press. p.
13
.
The problem of Ottoman origins has preoccupied students of history, but because of both the absence of contemporary source materials and conflicting accounts written subsequent to the events there seems to be no basis for a definitive statement.
- ^
Shaw, Stanford (1976).
History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey
. Cambridge University Press. p.
13
.
- ^
Treadgold 1997
, pp. 432?433.
- ^
a
b
c
Browning 1992
, p. 96.
- ^
Karlin-Heyer 1967
, p. 24
- ^
a
b
c
Browning 1992
, p. 101.
- ^
Browning 1992
, p. 107.
- ^
Browning 1992
, p. 108.
- ^
Browning 1992
, p. 112.
- ^
Browning 1992
, p. 113.
- ^
a
b
Browning 1992
, p. 116.
- ^
a
b
Browning 1992
, p. 95.
- ^
Cameron 2006
, p. 46.
- ^
Patterson 1995
, p. 15.
- ^
Cameron 2009
, p. 83.
- ^
Runciman 1990
, pp. 71?72.
- ^
Runciman 1990
, pp. 84?85.
- ^
Fouracre & Gerberding 1996
, p. 345
- ^
Norwich, John Julius (1993).
Byzantium: the apogee
. London: Penguin. p. 200.
ISBN
0-14-011448-3
.
OCLC
30781779
.
: "who in turn referred to
Otto
as 'the august Emperor of the Romans'"
- ^
Klein 2004
, p. 290 (Note #39);
Annales Fuldenses
, 389: "Mense lanuario c. epiphaniam Basilii, Graecorum imperatoris, legati cum muneribus et epistolis ad Hludowicum regem Radasbonam venerunt ...".
- ^
Fouracre & Gerberding 1996
, p. 345: "The Frankish court no longer regarded the Byzantine Empire as holding valid claims of universality."
- ^
Klewitz
, p. 33: Emperor
Michael I
recognized Charlemagne as an "Emperor". He refused to recognize him as a "Roman Emperor" (a title which Michael reserved for himself and his successors), instead recognizing him as the "Emperor of the Franks".
- ^
Rosser 2011
, p. 2
- ^
Kaldellis, Anthony (2022). "From "Empire of the Greeks" to "Byzantium"
". In Ransohoff, Jake; Aschenbrenner, Nathanael (eds.).
The Invention of Byzantium in Early Modern Europe
. Harvard University Press. pp. 366?367.
ISBN
9780884024842
.
The Crimean War had a profound?and unrecognized?impact by forging a new distinction between "Byzantine/Byzantium" and "Greek/Greece," in a context in which the "empire of the Greeks" had become a politically toxic concept to the Great Powers of Europe. In response, European intellectuals increasingly began to lean on the conceptually adjacent and neutral term Byzantium, in order to create a semantic bulwark between the acceptable national aspirations of the new Greek state, on the one hand, and its dangerous imperial fantasies and its (perceived) Russian patrons, on the other.
- ^
Langer, William Leonard; Hedges, James Blaine (1940).
An Encyclopedia of World History, Ancient, Medieval and Modern, Chronologically Arranged: A Revised and Modernized Version of Ploetz's "Epitome"
. Houghton Mifflin. p. 225
. Retrieved
2021-04-08
.
- ^
Norwich, John Julius (1982).
A history of Venice
. New York: Knopf. p. 32.
ISBN
0-394-52410-1
.
OCLC
8033556
.
- ^
Crowley, Roger (2012).
City of Fortune: How Venice Ruled the Seas
. New York: Random House.
ISBN
978-1400068203
.
- ^
Birkenmeier, John W. (2002).
The Development of the Komnenian Army: 1081?1180
. BRILL. pp.
39
.
ISBN
90-04-11710-5
.
- ^
Nicol, Donald M.
(1988).
Byzantium and Venice: A Study in Diplomatic and Cultural Relations
. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 95.
ISBN
0-521-34157-4
.
- ^
Jacobi, David (1999), "The Latin empire of Constantinople and the Frankish states in Greece", in Abulafia, David (ed.),
The New Cambridge Medieval History, Volume V: c. 1198?c. 1300
, Cambridge University Press, pp. 525?542,
ISBN
0-521-36289-X
- ^
Browning 1992
, p. 100.
- ^
Browning 1992
, pp. 102?103.
- ^
Browning 1992
, pp. 103?105.
- ^
Browning 1992
, pp. 106?107.
- ^
Browning 1992
, pp. 112?113.
- ^
a
b
c
Browning 1992
, p. 115.
- ^
a
b
c
Browning 1992
, pp. 114?115.
- ^
a
b
Cameron 2009
, p. 77.
- ^
Warren Treadgold. A History of the Byzantine State and Society. P. 143
- ^
Treadgold. P. 157
- ^
Treadgold. P. 221
- ^
Treadgold p. 261
Works cited
[
edit
]
- Browning, Robert (1992).
The Byzantine Empire
. Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America Press.
ISBN
978-0-8132-0754-4
.
- Cameron, Averil (2009).
Οι Βυζαντινο?
(in Greek). Athens: Psychogios.
ISBN
978-960-453-529-3
.
- ——— (2006).
The Byzantines
. Oxford: Blackwell.
ISBN
978-1-4051-9833-2
.
- Fouracre, Paul; Gerberding, Richard A. (1996).
Late Merovingian France: History and Hagiography, 640?720
. Manchester, England: Manchester University Press.
ISBN
978-0-7190-4791-6
.
- Karlin-Heyer, P. (1967). "When Military Affairs Were in Leo's Hands: A Note on Byzantine Foreign Policy (886?912)".
Tradition
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23
: 15?40.
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10.1017/S0362152900008722
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JSTOR
27830825
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- Klein, Holgen A. (2004). "Eastern Objects and Western Desires: Relics and Reliquaries between Byzantium and the West".
Dumbarton Oaks Papers
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58
: 283?314.
doi
:
10.2307/3591389
.
JSTOR
3591389
.
- Klewitz, Hans-Walter (1 January 1943).
"Eduard Eichmann, Die Kaiserkronung im Abendland. Ein Beitrag zur, Geistesgeschichte des Mittelalters, mit besonderer Berucksichtigung des kirchlichen Rechts, der Liturgie und der Kirchenpolitik"
.
Zeitschrift der Savigny-Stiftung fur Rechtsgeschichte: Kanonistische Abteilung
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10.7767/zrgka.1943.32.1.509
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183386465
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2018
.
- Patterson, Gordon M. (1995) [1990].
The Essentials of Medieval History: 500 to 1450 AD, the Middle Ages
. Piscataway: Research and Education Association.
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978-0-87891-705-1
.
- Rosser, John H. (2011). "Introduction".
Historical Dictionary of Byzantium
. Lanham, MA: Scarecrow.
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978-0-8108-7567-8
.
- Runciman, Steven (1990).
The Fall of Constantinople, 1453
. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
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978-0-521-39832-9
.
- Treadgold, Warren (1995).
Byzantium and Its Army, 284?1081
. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
ISBN
978-0-8047-2420-3
.
- Treadgold, Warren
(1997).
A History of the Byzantine State and Society
. Stanford, California:
Stanford University Press
.
ISBN
0-8047-2630-2
.
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