Type of governing assembly
"Folkmoot" redirects here. For the festival, see
Folkmoot USA
.
A
thing
,
[a]
also known as a
folkmoot
,
assembly
,
tribal council
, and
by other names
, was a governing assembly in early
Germanic
society, made up of the free people of the community presided over by a
lawspeaker
. Things took place at regular intervals, usually at prominent places that were accessible by travel. They provided legislative functions, as well as being social events and opportunities for trade. In modern usage, the meaning of this word in English and other languages has shifted to mean not just an assemblage of some sort but simply an object of any sort.
Etymology
[
edit
]
Look up
thing
in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
The word appears in Old Norse, Old English, and modern
Icelandic
as
þing
,
[b]
in
Middle English
(as in
modern English
),
Old Saxon
,
Old Dutch
, and
Old Frisian
as
thing
(the difference between
þing
and
thing
is purely orthographical), in
German
as
Ding
, in
Dutch
and
Afrikaans
as
ding
, and in modern
Norwegian
,
Danish
,
Swedish
,
Faroese
,
Gutnish
, and
Norn
as
ting
.
[1]
The place where a thing was held was called a "thingstead" (Old English
þingstede
, Old Norse
þingstaðr
) or "thingstow" (Old English
þingst?w
). An alternative Proto-Germanic form of the word 'thing' was
*þings?
, whence Gothic
þeihs
'time'. All of these terms derive from *
þing?
meaning "appointed time", possibly originating in
Proto-Indo-European
*
ten-
, "stretch", as in a "stretch of time for an assembly".
[1]
In English, the term is attested from 685 to 686
CE
in the older meaning "assembly"; later it referred to a being, entity or matter (sometime before 899), and then also an act, deed, or event (from about 1000). The original sense of "meeting, assembly" did not survive the shift to Middle English.
[2]
The meaning of personal possessions, commonly in the plural, first appears in
Middle English
around 1300.,
and eventually led to the modern sense of "object". This semantic development from "assembly" to "object" is mirrored in the evolution of the
Latin
causa
("judicial lawsuit", "case") to modern
French
chose
,
Spanish
/
Italian
/
Catalan
cosa
, and
Portuguese
coisa
(all meaning "object" or "thing")
[1]
and the cognate to English
sake
(purpose),
sak
in Norwegian and Swedish,
sag
in Danish,
zaak
in Dutch,
saak
in Afrikaans, and
Sache
in German, which in languages like
Old Norse
meant "accusation, lawsuit", but today also carries the sense "thing, object".
Today the term lives on in the English term
hustings
and in the names of
national legislatures
and political and judicial institutions of some Nordic countries (e.g. the Icelandic parliament, the
Alþing
) and of the
Isle of Man
. In modern German and Dutch the day Tuesday is named after the thing, namely '
Dienstag
' and '
dinsdag
'.
Early attestations
[
edit
]
The first detailed description of a thing was made by
Tacitus
in 98 CE.
[4]
Tacitus suggested that the things were annual delegate-based meetings that served legal and military functions.
[4]
The oldest written reference of the thing is on a stone pillar found along
Hadrian's Wall
at
Housestead
in the UK. It is dated 43?410 CE and reads:
DEO MARTI THINCSO ET DUABUS ALAISIAGIS BEDE ET FIMMILENE ET N AUG GERM CIVES TUIHANTI VSLM
To the god Mars Thincsus and the two Alaisiagae, Beda and Fimmilena, and to the Divinity of the Emperor the Germanics, being tribesmen of Tuihanti, willingly and deservedly fulfilled their vow.
The pillar was raised by a
Frisian
auxiliary unit of the Roman army deployed at Hadrian's Wall. The name Tuihanti refers to the current region
Twente
in the east of the Netherlands. However, these Tuihanti tribesmen have been interpreted by different historians as Frisians.
[5]
Deo Mars Thincsus means 'god Mars of the Thing'. "Mars of the Thing" may be interpreted in analogy with the week-day name (the Germanic
Tuesday
corresponding to Latin
Martis dies
'the day of
Mars
'; cf.
Interpretatio germanica
) as
T?waz
of the Thing. The god
T?waz
(Old English
Tiw
, Old Norse
Tyr
) was likely an important god in early Germanic times, and has numerous places in England and Denmark named after him. The possible theonyms Beda and Fimmilena in the same inscription seem to relate to the
bodthing
and
fimelthing
, two specific types of assemblies recorded in Old Frisian codices from around 1100 onward. These were specific types of assemblies. Perhaps the distinction was: the 'fixed thing' protected by the god Thincsus, the 'extra-ordinary thing' protected by the god Beda, and the 'informative or non-decision-making thing' protected by the god Fimmilena.
[6]
The
Anglo-Saxon
folkmoot
(
Old English
folcgem?t
, "folk meeting";
Middle English
folkesm?t
; modern Norwegian
folkemøte
) was analogous, the forerunner to the
witenagem?t
and a precursor of the modern
Parliament of the United Kingdom
.
Use in Germanic society
[
edit
]
In the Viking Age, things were the public assemblies of the free men of a country, province, or a
hundred
(
Swedish
:
harad, hundare
,
Danish
:
herred
). They functioned as both parliaments and courts at different levels of society?local, regional, and supra-regional.
Their purpose was to solve disputes and make political decisions, and thing sites were also often the place for public religious rites. According to Norway's Law of the
Gulathing
, only free men of full age could participate in the assembly.
According to written sources, women were clearly present at some things despite being left out of the decision making bodies, such as the Icelandic
Althing
.
In the pre-Christian
clan
-culture of Scandinavia, the members of a clan were obliged to avenge injuries against their dead and mutilated relatives. As a result, feuding is often seen as the most common form of conflict resolution used in Viking society. However, things are in a more general sense balancing structures used to reduce tribal feuds and avoid social disorder in North-Germanic cultures. They played an important role in Viking society as forums for conflict resolution, marriage alliances, power display, honor, and inheritance settlements.
In Sweden, assemblies were held both at natural and man-made mounds, often burial mounds.
Specifically in Scandinavia, unusually large rune-stones and inscriptions suggesting a local family's attempt to claim supremacy are common features of thing sites. It is common for assembly sites to be located close to communication routes, such as navigable water routes and clear land routes.
The thing met at regular intervals, legislated, elected
chieftains and kings
, and judged according to the law, which was memorized and recited by the "
lawspeaker
" (the judge). The thing's negotiations were presided over by the lawspeaker and the chieftain or the king. More and more scholarly discussions center around the things being forerunners to democratic institutions as we know them today. The Icelandic
Althing
is considered to be the oldest surviving parliament in the world, the Norwegian Gulathing also dating back to 900-1300 CE.
[13]
While the things were not democratic assemblies in the modern sense of an elected body, they were built around ideas of neutrality and representation,
[13]
effectively representing the interests of larger numbers of people. In Norway, the thing was a space where free men and elected officials met and discussed matters of collective interest, such as taxation.
[14]
Though some scholars say that the things were dominated by the most influential members of the community, the heads of clans and wealthy families, other scholars describe how every free man could put forward his case for deliberation and share his opinions.
[15]
History professor Torgrim Titlestad describes how Norway, with the thing sites, displayed an advanced political system over a thousand years ago, one that was characterized by high participation and democratic ideologies.
[16]
These things also served as courts of law,
[17]
and if one of the smaller things could not reach agreement, the matter at hand would be brought to one of the bigger things, which encompassed larger areas.
[14]
The legislature of Norway is still known as the Storting (Big Thing) today.
Towards the end of the Viking age, royal power became centralized and the kings began to consolidate power and control over the assemblies. As a result, things lost most of their political role and began to function largely as courts in the later Middle Ages.
Norway
[
edit
]
In the period between the eleventh and fourteenth centuries,
Norway
went through a state-formation process that elevated the control and power of the king. On the regional level, it has been assumed that the king would have taken control of the organization of assemblies via local representatives. Today, few thing sites from Norway are known for certain, and as new assembly sites are found, scholars question whether these are old jurisdiction districts which the king used as a foundation for his organization or whether he created new administrative units.
In southeast Norway in particular, one hypothesis for why the king would have established new thing sites might be that they were a "strategic geopolitical response to the threat from the Danish king in the beginning of the 11th century."
Since the record of Norwegian thing sites is not comprehensive, it is not favorable to rely on archeological and topographical characteristics to determine whether they were established prior to the state-formation period.
In northern and southwestern Norway, there appears to have been a close association between chieftains' farms and sites interpreted to be assemblies or court sites. These areas were considered neutral ground where the landowning elite could meet for political and
religious activities
. This view is based partly on
Saga
narratives of Viking chieftains as well as the distribution of large grave mounds.
[20]
Ultimately, this neutrality was important for thing participants' cooperation; royal officials required cooperation in order to look after the king's interests in local areas. In this regard, Norwegian things became an arena for cooperation between the royal representatives and the farmers.
Based on what is known from later medieval documents, one deep-rooted custom of Norwegian law areas was the bearing of arms coming from the old tradition of the
"weapon-take"
, which refers to the rattling of weapons at meetings to express agreement.
The Law of the Gulathing provides that the handling of these weapons should be controlled and regulated.
This is seen at
Haugating
, the thing for
Vestfold
in Norway, which was located in
Tønsberg
at Haugar (from the
Old Norse
haugr
meaning hill or mound). This site was one of Norway's most important places for the proclamation of kings. In 1130,
Harald Gille
called together a meeting at the Haugating at which he was declared to be King of Norway.
Sigurd Magnusson
was proclaimed king in 1193 at Haugating.
Magnus VII
was acclaimed hereditary King of Norway and Sweden at the Haugating in August 1319.
[23]
Sweden
[
edit
]
Similar to Norway, thing sites in
Sweden
experienced changes in administrative organization beginning in the late tenth and eleventh century. This was a result of the power struggle between the rising Christian royal power in the process of establishing itself and the old, local magnate families attempting to maintain power. The battle for power between the king and local magnates is most visible through runic inscriptions at thing sites, which were used to make important power statements.
Swedish assembly sites could be characterized by a number of typical features: large mounds, rune-stones, and crossings between roads by land or water to allow for greater accessibility.
A famous incident took place when
Þorgnyr the Lawspeaker
told the Swedish king
Olof Skotkonung
(c. 980?1022) that the people, not the king, held power in Sweden; the king realized that he was powerless against the thing and gave in. Main things in Sweden were the
Thing of all Swedes
, the
Thing of all Geats
and the
Lionga thing
.
The island of
Gotland
had twenty things in late medieval times, each represented at the island-thing called
landsting
by its elected judge. New laws were decided at the
landsting
, which also took other decisions regarding the island as a whole. The
landsting
'
s authority was successively eroded after the island was occupied by the
Teutonic Order
in 1398. In late medieval times the thing was made up of twelve representatives for the farmers, free-holders or tenants.
Iceland
[
edit
]
As a representative legislative body, the things in
Iceland
were similar to those in greater Scandinavia, but they had a very clear organizational structure. Iceland was divided into four administrative quarters during the Viking Age with a fixed number of thirty-nine lawmakers (
goðis
): twelve
goðis
in the northern quarter and nine each in the eastern, southern, and western quarters.
The main distinction between Iceland and greater Scandinavia lies in the organization of the Icelandic Althing (
Alþingi
), the main assembly during the Viking period and the Middle Ages. Unlike other European societies in the Middle Ages, Iceland was unique for relying on the Althing's legislative and judicial institutions at the national level rather than an executive branch of government.
[26]
Þingvellir
was the site of the Althing, and it was a place where people came together once a year to bring cases to court, render judgments, and discuss laws and politics.
At the annual Althing, the thirty-nine
goðis
along with nine others served as voting members of the Law Council (
Logretta
), a legislative assembly. The Logretta reviewed the laws which the lawspeaker recited, made new laws, set fines and punishments and were informed of sentences of outlawry and banishment that were passed by the courts in local spring assemblies.
[26]
Besides the Althing, there were local assembly districts in each of the four quarters of Iceland, and each year a Spring Assembly (
vorþing
) was brought together by three
goðis
who lived in each local assembly district (
samþingsgoðar
). The four quarters also had courts (
fjorðungsdomar
) that met at the Althing after a constitutional reform around 965. The
goðis
appointed the judges for these courts from the farmers in their districts.
[26]
Greenland
[
edit
]
In the early twentieth century, scholars identified two potential
Greenlandic
thing sites at
Brattahlið
in Eiriksfjorður and
Garðar
in Einarsfjorður; both are located in the
Eastern Settlement of Greenland
. These two sites were located through a combination of written sources and archeological evidence. Between these two Greenlandic sites, there are a number of overlapping characteristics that support the hypothesis that these booth sites are assemblies. However, not all "assembly features" previously seen in Scandinavia appear at every assembly site, and there are also characteristics that have either not been recorded in Greenland or are unique to Greenland.
The temporary turf structures of the Greenlandic booths have only been recorded in Iceland and would not have been seen at the assembly sites of Viking Age Sweden. Further, the booth sites at Brattahlið and Garðar were located close to high-status farms. Taken together, it indicates that trade would have taken place at these sites, and given the sparse nature of the Greenlandic settlement, it is reasonable that the participants of the thing would have taken the opportunity for social interaction or trade when gathered with others.
British Isles
[
edit
]
In England, there is
Thingwall
on the
Wirral
. In the
Yorkshire
and former
Danelaw
areas of England,
wapentakes
?another name for the same institution?were used in public records. Several places ending in the
-by
('village') place name suffix originally possessed their own laws,
by-laws
, and jurisdiction subject to the wapentake in which they served, which often extended over a surrounding ground called a thorpe ("hamlet"). If there was a riding surrounding the wapentake, the wapentake would merely be a local assembly coordinating the power of the riding. In Scandinavian York's case, it would be under the king's command at what is now
King's Square
in York.
The
Kingdom of East Anglia
was in control of the Danelaw which had been organised as the Five Boroughs. The Five were
fortifications
defending land against
Wessex
, or against the
Vikings
, depending on who ruled there; together with
Lindsey, Lincolnshire
, which was divided into three ridings like Yorkshire. Again, the naming of the two roads named Inner and Outer Ting Tong on a hill-top in Devon between Budleigh Salterton, Woodbury and Exmouth is widely derided as fanciful, but may be derived from Thing-Tun, a
dun
(hill fort) or
tun
(settlement) around the place where the Thing used to meet.
Thynghowe
was an important Danelaw meeting place, or thing, located in Sherwood Forest,
Nottinghamshire
, England. It was lost to history until its rediscovery in 2005?06 by local history enthusiasts Lynda Mallett and Stuart Reddish. The site lies amidst the old oaks of an area known as the Birklands in Sherwood Forest. Experts believe it may also yield clues as to the boundary of the Anglo Saxon kingdoms of Mercia and Northumbria. English Heritage has recently inspected the site, and has confirmed it was known as "Thynghowe" in 1334 and 1609. It functioned as a place where people came to resolve disputes and settle issues. Thynghowe is an Old Norse name, although the site may be older than the Danelaw, perhaps even Bronze Age. The word "howe" is derived from the Old Norse word
haugr
meaning 'mound'. This often indicates the presence of a prehistoric burial mound.
Frisia
[
edit
]
Early-medieval
Frisia
knew three levels thing assemblies: the highest level of the civitas, the middle level of the
pagus
, and the lowest level of the centena. The pagi are being considered the oldest building block, and probably took place three times a year and attended by all freemen. Early-medieval Frisia consisted of about 16 pagi. The other thing levels only became relevant during the Middle Ages.
[29]
The thing was led by law-speakers called asega, with the component
-a
meaning 'law' and the component
-sega
meaning 'to say/speak'. Every pagus had its own thing but due to lack of written sources it is difficult to establish where the thing sites were. Thing sites are being presumed by historians at Naaldwijk in the pagus Maasland (Land of the River Meuse), at Katwijk in the pagus Rijnland (Land of the River Rhine), at Heemskerk in the pagus Kennemerland, at De Waal in the pagus Texel,
[30]
at Franeker in the pagus Westergo and at Dokkum in the pagus
Oostergo
.
[29]
From the 12th century the thing called Upstalsboom took place on the level of the civitas. At
Upstalsboom
, near the current town of Aurich in the
East Frisia
region, Germany, delegates and judges from all seven Frisian Sealands used to gather once a year.
Place names
[
edit
]
The assembly of things were typically held at a specially designated place, often a field or common, like
Þingvellir
, the old location of the Icelandic thing (
Alþingi
). The parliament of the
Isle of Man
is still named after the meeting place of the thing,
Tynwald
, which etymologically is the same word as "
þingvellir
" (there is still an annual public assembly at Tynwald Hill each July 5, where the new Manx laws are read out and petitions delivered). Other equivalent place names can be found across northern Europe: in
Scotland
, there is
Dingwall
in the
Scottish Highlands
and Tingwall, occurring both in
Orkney
and
Shetland
, and further south there is
Tinwald
, in
Dumfries and Galloway
and ? in England ?
Thingwall
, a village on the
Wirral Peninsula
. In Sweden, there are several places named
Tingvalla
, which is the modern Swedish form of "Þingvellir", and the Norwegian equivalent is found in the place name
Tingvoll
. In
Dublin
,
Ireland
, the
Thingmote
was a raised mound, 40 foot high and 240 foot in circumference, where the Norsemen assembled and made their laws. It stood on the south of the river, where
Saint Andrew's Church
now stands, until 1685.
Unanswered questions
[
edit
]
It is contested between scholars to what extent things were sites of economic transactions and commerce as well as arenas for political and legal decisions. In Norway, it is clear that the assemblies functioned as an administrative level for economic transactions and taxes to the king.
The role of commerce at the thing is more undetermined in Iceland in particular because of the role of saga literature in influencing conclusions about things. Þingvellir was thought of as a trading place as a result of saga passages and law texts that refer to trade:
Intended to keep the peace in the region, the excursion was made every third summer, according to the law. An assembly of chieftains was called to choose the cases in which the kings were to pass judgment. Attending the assembly was regarded as an entertainment, as men attended from all the lands of which we have reports…
The assembly attracted a gathering of traders. People attended in large numbers, and there was plenty of entertainment, drinking and games, and festivities of all sorts. Nothing especially newsworthy occurred.
As shown in the
Laxdæla saga
, meetings at Þingvellir required people to travel from long distances and gather together for an extended period of time, thus it was inevitable that entertainment, food, tools, and other goods would have played a role in the gatherings. The main question lies in whether trade was conducted in the assembly or on the margins of the gathering. Similarly, there are unanswered questions about the connection between trade and assembly in Greenland. Research on Scandinavian trade and assembly is burgeoning, and thus far evidence has mostly been found in written sources, such as the sagas, and place names, "such as the 'Disting' market that is said to have been held during the thing meetings at Gamla Uppsala in Sweden."
National legislatures, current institutions and legal terms
[
edit
]
The national
legislatures
of
Iceland
,
Norway
and
Denmark
all have names that incorporate
thing
:
The legislatures of the self-governing territories of
Aland
,
Faroe Islands
,
Greenland
and
Isle of Man
also have names that refer to
thing
:
- Lagting
? The Alandic "Law Thing"
- Løgting
? The Faeroese "Law Thing"; also, the Faeroes are divided into six
varting
(administrative districts)
- Landsting
? The Greenlandic "Land Thing"
[37]
- Tynwald
? The Manx "Thing Meadow" on the Isle of Man,
[38]
formerly called "Ting"
In addition,
thing
can be found in the name of the
Swedish Assembly of Finland
(
Svenska Finlands folkting
), a semi-official body representing the
Finland Swedish
, and those of the three distinct
elected Sami assemblies
which are all called
Sameting
in Norwegian and Swedish (
Northern Sami
Samediggi
).
The
Swedish
national legislature,
since medieval times
, has borne a different style,
Riksdag
, which is cognate to the old name of the German national assembly,
Reichstag
. In Sweden, however,
ting
is used to name the subnational county councils, which are called
Landsting
. That name was also used in medieval times for the tings that governed the historical
Landskap
provinces, that were superseded by the
counties
in the 17th century. The name
ting
is also found in the names of the first level instances of the Swedish and Finnish
court
system, which are called
tingsratt
(
Finnish
:
karajaoikeus
), the 'court of the thing'.
Similarly, prior to 1953, the
Danish
legislature was known as
Rigsdagen
, which comprised the two houses of the
Folketing
"People's Thing" and
Landsting
"Land Thing". The latter, which was reserved for people of means, was abolished by the constitution of 1953.
The Norwegian parliament, the
Storting
, has historically been divided into
two chambers
named the
Lagting
and the
Odelsting
, which translates loosely into the "Thing of the Law" and the "Thing of the
Allodial rights
". However, for much of the Storting's recent history, the division into Lagting and Odelsting has been mostly ceremonial, and the Storting has generally operated as a
unicameral
parliament. A constitutional amendment passed in February 2007 abolished the Lagting and Odelsting, making this
de facto
unicameralism official following the
2009 election
.
On the lower administrative level the governing bodies on the county level in Norway are called Fylkesting, the Thing of the County. The names of the judicial courts of
Norway
contain for the most part the affix
ting
. The primary level of courts is called the
Tingrett
, with the same meaning as the Swedish
Tingsratt
, and four of the six
Norwegian Courts of Appeal
are named after historical Norwegian regional Things (
Frostating
,
Gulating
,
Borgarting
and
Eidsivating
).
In
Dutch
, the word
geding
refers to a
lawsuit
or
trial
, most noticeably with the term
kort geding
(literally:
short thing
) which refers to an
injunction
.
See also
[
edit
]
Notes
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
a
b
c
Harper
Online
, s.v. "thing"
- ^
Chantrell (ed.)
Oxford
, s.v. "thing".
- ^
a
b
Iversen, Frode (2020).
"Law-territories in Scandinavia: reflections of tribal coalitions"
.
"Rechtsraume" Historische und archaologische Annaherungen.
: 301?317.
doi
:
10.5771/9783465144120-301
.
ISBN
9783465144120
.
S2CID
245524597
.
- ^
Nijdam (2021).
Law and Political Organization of the Early Medieval Frisians (c. 600-800 CE)
. The Boydell Press, Woodbridge. p. 423.
ISBN
978-1-78327-561-8
.
- ^
Iversen (2013). "Concilium and Pagus ? Revisiting the Early Germanic Thing System of Northern Europe".
Journal of the North Atlantic
(5).
- ^
Oil version. There is a related watercolour
The Icelandic Thing
in the
British Museum
.
- ^
a
b
The Thing Project (2011?2019).
"What is a Thing? | THING Sites"
.
Thingsites.com
. Retrieved
24 March
2019
.
- ^
a
b
Øyrehagen Sunde, J. (2017).
"ting ? forsamling"
.
Store norske leksikon
. Retrieved
24 March
2019
.
- ^
Saga Bok (2017).
"Demokrati i vikingtid?"
.
Sagabok.no
. Retrieved
24 March
2019
.
- ^
Landro, J. (2012).
"Vikingene som demokratibyggere"
.
Blogg.bt.no
. Retrieved
24 March
2019
.
- ^
Gisle, J. (2018).
"lagting"
.
Store norske leksikon
. Retrieved
24 March
2019
.
- ^
Storli, Inger (2010). “Court Sites of Arctic Norway: Remains of Thing Sites and Representations of Political Consolidation Processes in the Northern Germanic World during the First Millennium ad?”
Norwegian Archaeological Review
43, no. 2: pp. 128?144.
- ^
Gansum & Oestigaard
Ritual
- ^
a
b
c
Thorsson 2010
, p. xlvi
- ^
a
b
Hines, John (2021).
Frisians of the Early Middle Ages; Nijdam, H., Law and Political Organization of the Early Medieval Frisians (c. 600-800 CE)
. Cornwall: TJ Books Limited. pp. 151?154.
ISBN
9781783275618
.
- ^
Dijkstra, M.F.P. (2011).
Rondom de mondingen van Rijn & Maas: landschap en bewoning tussen de 3e en 9e eeuw in Zuid-Holland, in het bijzonder de Oude Rijnstreek
. Leiden: Sidestone Press. pp. 298?301.
ISBN
9789088900785
.
- ^
Greenland Home Rule Act
(Translation)
, Danish Act No. 557 of 29 November 1978, c. 1, s. 1(2). Statsministeriet (Denmark). Retrieved 16 August 2015.
- ^
Broderick, George (2003).
"Tynwald: A Manx Cult-Site and Institution of pre-Scandinavian Origin?"
. Manx Studies
. Retrieved
16 August
2015
.
Further reading
[
edit
]
- Barnhart, Robert K.
, ed. (1995).
The Barnhart Concise Dictionary of Etymology
.
ISBN
0-06-270084-7
.
- Chantrell, Glynnis, ed. (2004).
Oxford Dictionary of Word Histories
(Second ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Collin, James (1913).
"Chapter 6"
.
Life in Old Dublin
(Second ed.). Dublin: James Duffy & Co.
- Gansum, Terje; Oestigaard, Terje (2004).
"The Ritual Stratigraphy of Monuments that Matter"
(PDF)
.
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Gods and divine figures
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Heroic figures
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Other beings
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Locations
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Society and culture
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Modern pagan revival
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