Process by which an object moves, through an atmosphere or beyond it
Natural flight
by a
brown pelican
Human-engineered flight: a
Royal Jordanian Airlines
Boeing 787
Flight
or
flying
is the process by which an
object
moves
through a
space
without contacting any
planetary surface
, either within an
atmosphere
(i.e. air flight or
aviation
) or through the
vacuum
of
outer space
(i.e.
spaceflight
). This can be achieved by generating
aerodynamic lift
associated with
gliding
or
propulsive thrust
,
aerostatically
using
buoyancy
, or by
ballistic
movement.
Many things can fly, from
animal aviators
such as
birds
,
bats
and
insects
, to natural gliders/parachuters such as
patagial
animals,
anemochorous
seeds
and
ballistospores
, to human inventions like
aircraft
(
airplanes
,
helicopters
,
airships
,
balloons
, etc.) and
rockets
which may propel
spacecraft
and
spaceplanes
.
The engineering aspects of flight are the purview of
aerospace engineering
which is subdivided into
aeronautics
, the study of vehicles that travel through the atmosphere, and
astronautics
, the study of vehicles that travel through space, and
ballistics
, the study of the flight of projectiles.
Types of flight
[
edit
]
Buoyant flight
[
edit
]
An airship flies because the upward force, from air displacement, is equal to or greater than the force of gravity
Humans have managed to construct lighter-than-air vehicles that raise off the ground and fly, due to their
buoyancy
in the air.
An
aerostat
is a system that remains aloft primarily through the use of
buoyancy
to give an aircraft the same overall density as air. Aerostats include
free balloons
,
airships
, and
moored balloons
. An aerostat's main structural component is its
envelope
, a lightweight
skin
that encloses a volume of
lifting gas
[1]
[2]
to provide
buoyancy
, to which other components are attached.
Aerostats are so named because they use "aerostatic" lift, a
buoyant
force that does not require lateral movement through the surrounding air mass to effect a lifting force. By contrast,
aerodynes
primarily use
aerodynamic
lift
, which requires the lateral movement of at least some part of the
aircraft
through the surrounding air mass.
Aerodynamic flight
[
edit
]
Unpowered flight versus powered flight
[
edit
]
Some things that fly do not generate propulsive thrust through the air, for example, the
flying squirrel
. This is termed
gliding
. Some other things can exploit rising air to climb such as
raptors
(when gliding) and
man-made sailplane gliders
. This is termed
soaring
. However most other birds and all
powered aircraft
need a source of
propulsion
to climb. This is termed powered flight.
Animal flight
[
edit
]
Female
mallard
duck
Tau emerald
dragonfly
Kea
The only groups of
living things that use powered flight
are
birds
,
insects
, and
bats
, while many groups have evolved gliding. The extinct
pterosaurs
, an
order
of reptiles contemporaneous with the
dinosaurs
, were also very successful flying animals,
[3]
and there were apparently some flying dinosaurs (see
Flying and gliding animals#Non-avian dinosaurs
). Each of these groups'
wings
evolved independently
, with insects the first animal group to evolve flight.
[4]
The wings of the flying vertebrate groups are all based on the forelimbs, but differ significantly in structure; those of insects are hypothesized to be highly modified versions of structures that form gills in most other groups of
arthropods
.
[3]
Bats
are the only
mammals
capable of sustaining level flight (see
bat flight
).
[5]
However, there are several
gliding mammals
which are able to glide from tree to tree using fleshy membranes between their limbs; some can travel hundreds of meters in this way with very little loss in height.
Flying frogs
use greatly enlarged webbed feet for a similar purpose, and there are
flying lizards
which fold out their mobile ribs into a pair of flat gliding surfaces.
"Flying" snakes
also use mobile ribs to flatten their body into an aerodynamic shape, with a back and forth motion much the same as they use on the ground.
Flying fish
can glide using enlarged wing-like fins, and have been observed soaring for hundreds of meters. It is thought that this ability was chosen by
natural selection
because it was an effective means of escape from underwater predators. The longest recorded flight of a flying fish was 45 seconds.
[6]
Most
birds
fly (
see
bird flight
), with some exceptions. The largest birds, the
ostrich
and the
emu
, are earthbound
flightless birds
, as were the now-extinct
dodos
and the
Phorusrhacids
, which were the dominant predators of
South America
in the
Cenozoic
era. The non-flying
penguins
have wings adapted for use under water and use the same wing movements for swimming that most other birds use for flight.
[
citation needed
]
Most small flightless birds are native to small islands, and lead a lifestyle where flight would offer little advantage.
Among living animals that fly, the
wandering albatross
has the greatest wingspan, up to 3.5 meters (11 feet); the
great bustard
has the greatest weight, topping at 21 kilograms (46 pounds).
[7]
Most species of
insects
can fly as adults.
Insect flight
makes use of either of two basic aerodynamic models: creating a leading edge vortex, found in most insects, and using
clap and fling
, found in very small insects such as
thrips
.
[8]
[9]
Many species of
spiders
,
spider mites
and
lepidoptera
use a technique called
ballooning
to ride
air currents
such as
thermals
, by exposing their
gossamer threads
which gets lifted by wind and
atmospheric
electric fields
.
Mechanical
[
edit
]
Mechanical flight: A
Robinson R22
Beta
helicopter
Mechanical flight
is the use of a
machine
to fly. These machines include
aircraft
such as
airplanes
,
gliders
,
helicopters
,
autogyros
,
airships
,
balloons
,
ornithopters
as well as
spacecraft
.
Gliders
are capable of unpowered flight. Another form of mechanical flight is para-sailing, where a parachute-like object is pulled by a boat. In an airplane, lift is created by the wings; the shape of the wings of the airplane are designed specially for the type of flight desired. There are different types of wings: tempered, semi-tempered, sweptback, rectangular and elliptical. An aircraft wing is sometimes called an
airfoil
, which is a device that creates lift when air flows across it.
Supersonic
[
edit
]
Supersonic flight is flight faster than the
speed of sound
. Supersonic flight is associated with the formation of
shock waves
that form a
sonic boom
that can be heard from the ground,
[10]
and is frequently startling. This shockwave takes quite a lot of energy to create and this makes supersonic flight generally less efficient than subsonic flight at about 85% of the speed of sound.
Hypersonic
[
edit
]
Hypersonic flight is very high speed flight where the heat generated by the compression of the air due to the motion through the air causes chemical changes to the air. Hypersonic flight is achieved primarily by reentering spacecraft such as the
Space Shuttle
and
Soyuz
.
The
International Space Station
in Earth
orbit
Ballistic
[
edit
]
Atmospheric
[
edit
]
Some things generate little or no lift and move only or mostly under the action of momentum, gravity, air drag and in some cases thrust. This is termed
ballistic flight
. Examples include
balls
,
arrows
,
bullets
,
fireworks
etc.
Spaceflight
[
edit
]
Essentially an extreme form of ballistic flight, spaceflight is the use of
space technology
to achieve the flight of
spacecraft
into and through
outer space
. Examples include
ballistic missiles
,
orbital spaceflight
, etc.
Spaceflight is used in
space exploration
, and also in commercial activities like
space tourism
and
satellite telecommunications
. Additional non-commercial uses of spaceflight include
space observatories
,
reconnaissance satellites
and other
Earth observation satellites
.
A spaceflight typically begins with a
rocket launch
, which provides the initial thrust to overcome the force of
gravity
and propels the spacecraft from the surface of the Earth.
[11]
Once in space, the motion of a spacecraft?both when unpropelled and when under propulsion?is covered by the area of study called
astrodynamics
. Some spacecraft remain in space indefinitely, some disintegrate during
atmospheric reentry
, and others reach a planetary or lunar surface for landing or impact.
Solid-state propulsion
[
edit
]
In 2018, researchers at
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
(MIT) managed to fly an aeroplane with no moving parts, powered by an "
ionic
wind" also known as electroaerodynamic thrust.
[12]
[13]
History
[
edit
]
Many human cultures have built devices that fly, from the earliest projectiles such as stones and spears,
[14]
[15]
the
boomerang
in
Australia
, the hot air
Kongming lantern
, and
kites
.
Aviation
[
edit
]
George Cayley
studied flight scientifically in the first half of the 19th century,
[16]
[17]
[18]
and in the second half of the 19th century
Otto Lilienthal
made over 200 gliding flights and was also one of the first to understand flight scientifically. His work was replicated and extended by the
Wright brothers
who made gliding flights and finally the first controlled and extended, manned powered flights.
[19]
Spaceflight
[
edit
]
Spaceflight, particularly
human spaceflight
became a reality in the 20th century following theoretical and practical breakthroughs by
Konstantin Tsiolkovsky
and
Robert H. Goddard
. The
first orbital spaceflight
was in 1957,
[20]
and
Yuri Gagarin
was carried aboard the first crewed orbital spaceflight in 1961.
[21]
Physics
[
edit
]
Lighter-than-air
airships
are able to fly without any major input of energy
There are different approaches to flight. If an object has a lower
density
than air, then it is
buoyant
and is able to
float in the air
without expending energy. A
heavier than air
craft, known as an
aerodyne
, includes flighted animals and insects,
fixed-wing aircraft
and
rotorcraft
. Because the craft is heavier than air, it must generate
lift
to overcome its
weight
. The wind resistance caused by the craft moving through the air is called
drag
and is overcome by
propulsive thrust
except in the case of
gliding
.
Some vehicles also use thrust in the place of lift; for example
rockets
and
Harrier jump jets
.
Forces
[
edit
]
Main forces acting on a heavier-than-air aircraft
Forces relevant to flight are
[22]
These forces must be balanced for stable flight to occur.
Thrust
[
edit
]
Forces on an
aerofoil
cross section
A
fixed-wing aircraft
generates forward thrust when air is pushed in the direction opposite to flight. This can be done in several ways including by the spinning blades of a
propeller
, or a rotating
fan
pushing air out from the back of a
jet engine
, or by ejecting hot gases from a
rocket engine
.
[23]
The forward thrust is proportional to the
mass
of the airstream multiplied by the difference in
velocity
of the airstream. Reverse thrust can be generated to aid braking after landing by reversing the pitch of variable-pitch propeller blades, or using a
thrust reverser
on a jet engine.
Rotary wing aircraft
and
thrust vectoring
V/STOL
aircraft use engine thrust to support the weight of the aircraft, and vector sum of this thrust fore and aft to control forward speed.
Lift
[
edit
]
Lift is defined as the component of the
aerodynamic force
that is perpendicular to the flow direction, and drag is the component that is parallel to the flow direction
In the context of an
air flow
relative to a flying body, the
lift
force is the
component
of the
aerodynamic force
that is
perpendicular
to the flow direction.
[24]
Aerodynamic lift results when the wing causes the surrounding air to be deflected - the air then causes a force on the wing in the opposite direction, in accordance with
Newton's third law of motion
.
Lift is commonly associated with the
wing
of an
aircraft
, although lift is also generated by
rotors
on
rotorcraft
(which are effectively rotating wings, performing the same function without requiring that the aircraft move forward through the air). While common meanings of the word "
lift
" suggest that lift opposes gravity, aerodynamic lift can be in any direction. When an aircraft is
cruising
for example, lift does oppose gravity, but lift occurs at an angle when climbing, descending or banking. On high-speed cars, the lift force is directed downwards (called "down-force") to keep the car stable on the road.
Drag
[
edit
]
For a solid object moving through a fluid, the drag is the component of the
net
aerodynamic
or
hydrodynamic
force
acting opposite to the direction of the movement.
[25]
[26]
[27]
[28]
Therefore, drag opposes the motion of the object, and in a powered vehicle it must be overcome by
thrust
. The process which creates lift also causes some drag.
Lift-to-drag ratio
[
edit
]
Speed and drag relationships for a typical aircraft
Aerodynamic lift is created by the motion of an aerodynamic object (wing) through the air, which due to its shape and angle deflects the air. For sustained straight and level flight, lift must be equal and opposite to weight. In general, long narrow wings are able deflect a large amount of air at a slow speed, whereas smaller wings need a higher forward speed to deflect an equivalent amount of air and thus generate an equivalent amount of lift. Large cargo aircraft tend to use longer wings with higher angles of attack, whereas supersonic aircraft tend to have short wings and rely heavily on high forward speed to generate lift.
However, this lift (deflection) process inevitably causes a retarding force called drag. Because lift and drag are both aerodynamic forces, the ratio of lift to drag is an indication of the aerodynamic efficiency of the airplane. The lift to drag ratio is the L/D ratio, pronounced "L over D ratio." An airplane has a high L/D ratio if it produces a large amount of lift or a small amount of drag. The lift/drag ratio is determined by dividing the lift coefficient by the drag coefficient, CL/CD.
[29]
The lift coefficient Cl is equal to the lift L divided by the (density r times half the velocity V squared times the wing area A). [Cl = L / (A * .5 * r * V^2)] The lift coefficient is also affected by the compressibility of the air, which is much greater at higher speeds, so velocity V is not a linear function. Compressibility is also affected by the shape of the aircraft surfaces.
[30]
The drag coefficient Cd is equal to the drag D divided by the (density r times half the velocity V squared times the reference area A). [Cd = D / (A * .5 * r * V^2)]
[31]
Lift-to-drag ratios for practical aircraft vary from about 4:1 for vehicles and birds with relatively short wings, up to 60:1 or more for vehicles with very long wings, such as gliders. A greater angle of attack relative to the forward movement also increases the extent of deflection, and thus generates extra lift. However a greater angle of attack also generates extra drag.
Lift/drag ratio also determines the glide ratio and gliding range. Since the glide ratio is based only on the relationship of the aerodynamics forces acting on the aircraft, aircraft weight will not affect it. The only effect weight has is to vary the time that the aircraft will glide for ? a heavier aircraft gliding at a higher airspeed will arrive at the same touchdown point in a shorter time.
[32]
Buoyancy
[
edit
]
Air pressure acting up against an object in air is greater than the pressure above pushing down. The buoyancy, in both cases, is equal to the weight of fluid displaced -
Archimedes' principle
holds for air just as it does for water.
A cubic meter of air at ordinary
atmospheric pressure
and room temperature has a mass of about 1.2 kilograms, so its weight is about 12
newtons
. Therefore, any 1-cubic-meter object in air is buoyed up with a force of 12 newtons. If the mass of the 1-cubic-meter object is greater than 1.2 kilograms (so that its weight is greater than 12 newtons), it falls to the ground when released. If an object of this size has a mass less than 1.2 kilograms, it rises in the air. Any object that has a mass that is less than the mass of an equal volume of air will rise in air - in other words, any object less dense than air will rise.
Thrust to weight ratio
[
edit
]
Thrust-to-weight ratio
is, as its name suggests, the ratio of instantaneous
thrust
to
weight
(where weight means weight at the
Earth
's standard acceleration
).
[33]
It is a dimensionless parameter characteristic of
rockets
and other jet engines and of vehicles propelled by such engines (typically space
launch vehicles
and jet
aircraft
).
If the
thrust-to-weight ratio
is greater than the local gravity strength (expressed in
g
s), then flight can occur without any forward motion or any aerodynamic lift being required.
If the thrust-to-weight ratio times the lift-to-drag ratio is greater than local gravity then
takeoff
using aerodynamic lift is possible.
Flight dynamics
[
edit
]
Pitch
Yaw
Roll
The upward tilt of the wings and tailplane of an aircraft, as seen on this
Boeing 737
, is called dihedral angle
Flight dynamics
is the science of
air
and
space
vehicle orientation and control in three dimensions. The three critical flight dynamics parameters are the angles of rotation in three
dimensions
about the vehicle's
center of mass
, known as
pitch
,
roll
and
yaw
(See
Tait-Bryan rotations
for an explanation).
The control of these dimensions can involve a
horizontal stabilizer
(i.e. "a tail"),
ailerons
and other movable aerodynamic devices which control angular stability i.e. flight attitude (which in turn affects
altitude
,
heading
). Wings are often angled slightly upwards- they have "positive
dihedral angle
" which gives inherent roll stabilization.
Energy efficiency
[
edit
]
To create thrust so as to be able to gain height, and to push through the air to overcome the drag associated with lift all takes energy. Different objects and creatures capable of flight vary in the efficiency of their muscles, motors and how well this translates into forward thrust.
Propulsive efficiency determines how much energy vehicles generate from a unit of fuel.
[34]
[35]
Range
[
edit
]
The range that powered flight articles can achieve is ultimately limited by their drag, as well as how much energy they can store on board and how efficiently they can turn that energy into propulsion.
[36]
For powered aircraft the useful energy is determined by their
fuel fraction
- what percentage of the takeoff weight is fuel, as well as the
specific energy
of the fuel used.
Power-to-weight ratio
[
edit
]
All animals and devices capable of sustained flight need relatively high power-to-weight ratios to be able to generate enough lift and/or thrust to achieve take off.
Takeoff and landing
[
edit
]
Vehicles that can fly can have different ways to
takeoff and land
. Conventional aircraft accelerate along the ground until sufficient lift is generated for
takeoff
, and reverse the process for
landing
. Some aircraft can take off at low speed; this is called a short takeoff. Some aircraft such as helicopters and
Harrier jump jets
can take off and land vertically. Rockets also usually take off and land vertically, but some designs can land horizontally.
Guidance, navigation and control
[
edit
]
Navigation
[
edit
]
Navigation
is the systems necessary to calculate current position (e.g.
compass
,
GPS
,
LORAN
,
star tracker
,
inertial measurement unit
, and
altimeter
).
In aircraft, successful
air navigation
involves piloting an aircraft from place to place without getting lost, breaking the laws applying to aircraft, or endangering the safety of those on board or on the
ground
.
The techniques used for navigation in the air will depend on whether the aircraft is flying under the
visual flight rules
(VFR) or the
instrument flight rules
(IFR). In the latter case, the
pilot
will navigate exclusively using
instruments
and
radio navigation aids
such as beacons, or as directed under
radar
control by
air traffic control
. In the VFR case, a pilot will largely navigate using
dead reckoning
combined with visual observations (known as
pilotage
), with reference to appropriate maps. This may be supplemented using radio navigation aids.
Guidance
[
edit
]
A
guidance system
is a device or group of devices used in the
navigation
of a
ship
,
aircraft
,
missile
,
rocket
,
satellite
, or other moving object. Typically, guidance is responsible for the calculation of the vector (i.e., direction, velocity) toward an objective.
Control
[
edit
]
A conventional fixed-wing
aircraft flight control system
consists of
flight control surfaces
, the respective cockpit controls, connecting linkages, and the necessary operating mechanisms to control an aircraft's direction in flight.
Aircraft engine controls
are also considered as flight controls as they change speed.
Traffic
[
edit
]
In the case of aircraft, air traffic is controlled by
air traffic control
systems.
Collision avoidance
is the process of controlling spacecraft to try to prevent collisions.
Flight safety
[
edit
]
Air safety
is a term encompassing the theory, investigation and categorization of
flight failures
, and the prevention of such failures through regulation, education and training. It can also be applied in the context of campaigns that inform the public as to the safety of
air travel
.
See also
[
edit
]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to
Flight
.
References
[
edit
]
- Notes
- ^
Walker 2000, p. 541. Quote: the gas-bag of a balloon or airship.
- ^
Coulson-Thomas 1976, p. 281. Quote: fabric enclosing gas-bags of airship.
- ^
a
b
Averof, Michalis.
"Evolutionary origin of insect wings from ancestral gills."
Nature
, Volume 385, Issue 385, February 1997, pp. 627?630.
- ^
Eggleton, Paul (2020).
"The State of the World's Insects"
.
Annual Review of Environment and Resources
.
45
: 61?82.
doi
:
10.1146/annurev-environ-012420-050035
.
- ^
World Book Student.
Chicago: World Book. Retrieved: April 29, 2011.
- ^
"BBC article and video of flying fish."
BBC
, May 20, 2008. Retrieved: May 20, 2008.
- ^
"Swan Identification."
Archived
2006-10-31 at the
Wayback Machine
The Trumpeter Swan Society.
Retrieved: January 3, 2012.
- ^
Wang, Z. Jane
(2005).
"Dissecting Insect Flight"
(PDF)
.
Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics
.
37
(1): 183?210.
Bibcode
:
2005AnRFM..37..183W
.
doi
:
10.1146/annurev.fluid.36.050802.121940
.
- ^
Sane, Sanjay P. (2003).
"The aerodynamics of insect flight"
(PDF)
.
The Journal of Experimental Biology
.
206
(23): 4191?4208.
doi
:
10.1242/jeb.00663
.
PMID
14581590
.
S2CID
17453426
.
- ^
Bern, Peter.
"Concorde: You asked a pilot."
BBC
, October 23, 2003.
- ^
Spitzmiller, Ted (2007).
Astronautics: A Historical Perspective of Mankind's Efforts to Conquer the Cosmos
. Apogee Books. p. 467.
ISBN
9781894959667
.
- ^
Haofeng Xu; et al. (2018). "Flight of an aeroplane with solid-state propulsion". Vol. 563. Nature. pp. 532?535.
doi
:
10.1038/s41586-018-0707-9
.
- ^
Jennifer Chu (21 November 2018).
"MIT engineers fly first-ever plane with no moving parts"
.
MIT News
.
- ^
"Archytas of Tar entum."
Archived
December 26, 2008, at the
Wayback Machine
Technology Museum of Thessaloniki, Macedonia, Greece/
Retrieved: May 6, 2012.
- ^
"Ancient history."
Archived
2002-12-05 at the
Wayback Machine
Automata.
Retrieved:May 6, 2012.
- ^
"Sir George Cayley"
. Flyingmachines.org
. Retrieved
27 August
2019
.
Sir George Cayley is one of the most important people in the history of aeronautics. Many consider him the first true scientific aerial investigator and the first person to understand the underlying principles and forces of flight.
- ^
"The Pioneers: Aviation and Airmodelling"
. Retrieved
26 July
2009
.
Sir George Cayley, is sometimes called the 'Father of Aviation'. A pioneer in his field, he is credited with the first major breakthrough in heavier-than-air flight. He was the first to identify the four aerodynamic forces of flight ? weight, lift, drag, and thrust ? and their relationship and also the first to build a successful human-carrying glider.
- ^
"U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission ? Sir George Cayley"
. Archived from
the original
on 20 September 2008
. Retrieved
10 September
2008
.
Sir George Cayley, born in 1773, is sometimes called the Father of Aviation. A pioneer in his field, Cayley literally has two great spurts of aeronautical creativity, separated by years during which he did little with the subject. He was the first to identify the four aerodynamic forces of flight ? weight, lift, drag, and thrust and their relationship. He was also the first to build a successful human-carrying glider. Cayley described many of the concepts and elements of the modern aeroplane and was the first to understand and explain in engineering terms the concepts of lift and thrust.
- ^
"Orville Wright's Personal Letters on Aviation."
Archived
2012-06-11 at the
Wayback Machine
Shapell Manuscript Foundation
, (Chicago), 2012.
- ^
"Sputnik and the Origins of the Space Age"
.
- ^
"Gagarin anniversary."
Archived
2013-04-05 at the
Wayback Machine
NASA
. Retrieved: May 6, 2012.
- ^
"Four forces on an aeroplane."
NASA.
Retrieved: January 3, 2012.
- ^
"Newtons Third Law"
. Archived from
the original
on 1999-11-28.
- ^
"Definition of lift."
Archived
2009-02-03 at the
Wayback Machine
NASA.
Retrieved: May 6, 2012.
- ^
French 1970, p. 210.
- ^
"Basic flight physics."
Berkeley University.
Retrieved: May 6, 2012.
- ^
"What is Drag?"
Archived
2010-05-24 at the
Wayback Machine
NASA.
Retrieved: May 6, 2012.
- ^
"Motions of particles through fluids."
Archived
2012-04-25 at the
Wayback Machine
lorien.ncl.ac.
Retrieved: May 6, 2012.
- ^
The Beginner's Guide to Aeronautics - NASA Glenn Research Center
https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/ldrat.html
- ^
The Beginner's Guide to Aeronautics - NASA Glenn Research Center
https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/liftco.html
- ^
The Beginner's Guide to Aeronautics - NASA Glenn Research Center
https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/dragco.html
- ^
The Beginner's Guide to Aeronautics - NASA Glenn Research Center
https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/ldrat.html
- ^
Sutton and Biblarz 2000, p. 442. Quote: "thrust-to-weight ratio F/W
0
is a dimensionless parameter that is identical to the acceleration of the rocket propulsion system (expressed in multiples of g0) if it could fly by itself in a gravity free vacuum."
- ^
ch10-3 "History."
NASA.
Retrieved: May 6, 2012.
- ^
Honicke et al. 1968
[
page needed
]
- ^
"13.3 Aircraft Range: The Breguet Range Equation"
.
- Bibliography
- Coulson-Thomas, Colin.
The Oxford Illustrated Dictionary.
Oxford, UK:
Oxford University Press
, 1976, First edition 1975,
ISBN
978-0-19-861118-9
.
- French, A. P.
Newtonian Mechanics
(The M.I.T. Introductory Physics Series) (1st ed.). New York:
W. W. Norton & Company
Inc., 1970.
- Honicke, K., R. Lindner, P. Anders, M. Krahl, H. Hadrich and K. Rohricht.
Beschreibung der Konstruktion der Triebwerksanlagen.
Berlin: Interflug, 1968.
- Sutton, George P. Oscar Biblarz.
Rocket Propulsion Elements.
New York:
Wiley-Interscience
, 2000 (7th edition).
ISBN
978-0-471-32642-7
.
- Walker, Peter.
Chambers Dictionary of Science and Technology
.
Edinburgh: Chambers Harrap Publishers Ltd., 2000, First edition 1998.
ISBN
978-0-550-14110-1
.
External links
[
edit
]
Look up
flight
in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for
Flights
.
Flight
travel guide from Wikivoyage