1987?1993 Palestinian uprising against Israel
This article is about the 1987?1993 Palestinian uprising against Israel. For the 1999?2004 Sahrawi uprising against Morocco, see
First Sahrawi Intifada
.
The
First Intifada
(
Arabic
:
????????? ??????
,
romanized
:
al-Intif??a al-’?l?
,
lit.
'The First Uprising'), also known as the
First Palestinian Intifada
[4]
[6]
or the
Stone Intifada
, was a sustained series of protests, acts of
civil disobedience
and
riots
carried out by
Palestinians
in the
Israeli-occupied
Palestinian territories
and
Israel
.
[7]
It was motivated by collective Palestinian frustration over Israel's military occupation of the
West Bank
and the
Gaza Strip
, as it approached a twenty-year mark, having begun in the wake of the
1967 Arab?Israeli War
.
[8]
The uprising lasted from December 1987 until the
Madrid Conference of 1991
, though some date its conclusion to 1993, with the signing of the
Oslo Accords
.
[4]
The intifada began on 9 December 1987,
[9]
in the
Jabalia refugee camp
after an Israeli truck driver collided with a civilian car, killing four Palestinian workers, three of whom were from the
Jabalia
refugee camp
.
[11]
Palestinians charged that the collision was a deliberate response for the killing of an Israeli in Gaza days earlier.
[12]
Israel denied that the crash, which came at time of heightened tensions, was intentional or coordinated.
[13]
The Palestinian response was characterized by protests, civil disobedience, and violence.
[14]
[15]
There was
graffiti
,
barricading
,
[16]
[17]
and widespread
throwing of stones
and
Molotov cocktails
at the Israeli army and its infrastructure within the West Bank and Gaza Strip. These contrasted with civil efforts including
general strikes
,
boycotts
of
Israeli Civil Administration
institutions in the
Gaza Strip
and the
West Bank
, an economic
boycott
consisting of refusal to work in
Israeli settlements
on Israeli products, refusal to pay taxes, and refusal to drive Palestinian cars with Israeli licenses.
Israel deployed some 80,000 soldiers in response. Israeli countermeasures, which initially included the use of live rounds frequently in cases of riots, were criticized by
Human Rights Watch
as disproportionate, in addition to Israel's excessive use of lethal force.
[18]
In the first 13 months, 332 Palestinians and 12 Israelis were killed.
[19]
[20]
Images of soldiers beating adolescents with clubs then led to the adoption of firing semi-lethal plastic bullets.
[19]
During the whole six-year intifada, the Israeli army killed at least 1,087 Palestinians, of which 240 were children.
[21]
Among Israelis, 100 civilians and 60 Israeli soldiers were killed,
[22]
often by militants outside the control of the Intifada's
UNLU
,
[23]
and more than 1,400 Israeli civilians and 1,700 soldiers were injured.
[24]
Intra-Palestinian violence was also a prominent feature of the Intifada, with widespread executions of an estimated 822 Palestinians killed as alleged Israeli
collaborators
(1988?April 1994).
[25]
At the time Israel reportedly obtained information from some 18,000 Palestinians who had been compromised,
[26]
although fewer than half had any proven contact with the Israeli authorities.
[27]
The ensuing
Second Intifada
took place from September 2000 to 2005.
Background
According to
Mubarak Awad
, a Palestinian American clinical psychologist, the Intifada was a protest against Israeli repression including "beatings, shootings, killings, house demolitions, uprooting of trees, deportations, extended imprisonments, and detentions without trial".
[28]
After Israel's capture of the
West Bank
,
Jerusalem
,
Sinai Peninsula
and
Gaza Strip
from
Jordan
and
Egypt
in the
Six-Day War
in 1967, frustration grew among Palestinians in the
Israeli-occupied territories
. Israel opened its labor market to Palestinians in the newly occupied territories. Palestinians were recruited mainly to do unskilled or semi-skilled labor jobs Israelis did not want. By the time of the Intifada, over 40 percent of the Palestinian work force worked in Israel daily. Additionally, Israeli expropriation of Palestinian land, high birth rates in the West Bank and Gaza Strip and the limited allocation of land for new building and agriculture created conditions marked by growing population density and rising unemployment, even for those with university degrees. At the time of the Intifada, only one in eight college-educated Palestinians could find degree-related work.
[29]
This was coupled with an expansion of a Palestinian university system catering to people from refugee camps, villages, and small towns generating new Palestinian elite from a lower social strata that was more activistic and confrontational with Israel.
[30]
The
Israeli Labor Party
's
Yitzhak Rabin
, then
Defense Minister
, added deportations in August 1985 to Israel's "Iron Fist" policy of cracking down on Palestinian nationalism.
[31]
This, which led to 50 deportations in the following 4 years,
[32]
was accompanied by economic integration and increasing Israeli
settlements
such that the Jewish settler population in the West Bank alone nearly doubled from 35,000 in 1984 to 64,000 in 1988, reaching 130,000 by the mid nineties.
[33]
Referring to the developments, Israeli minister of Economics and Finance,
Gad Ya'acobi
, stated that "a creeping process of
de facto
annexation" contributed to a growing militancy in Palestinian society.
[34]
During the 1980s a number of mainstream Israeli politicians referred to policies of transferring the Palestinian population out of the territories leading to Palestinian fears that Israel planned to evict them. Public statements calling for transfer of the Palestinian population were made by Deputy Defense minister
Michael Dekel
, Cabinet Minister
Mordechai Tzipori
and government Minister
Yosef Shapira
among others.
[33]
Describing the causes of the Intifada,
Benny Morris
refers to the "all-pervading element of humiliation", caused by the protracted occupation which he says was "always a brutal and mortifying experience for the occupied" and was "founded on brute force, repression and fear, collaboration and treachery, beatings and torture chambers, and daily intimidation, humiliation, and manipulation."
[35]
Trigger for the uprising
While the catalyst for the First Intifada is generally dated to a truck incident involving several Palestinian fatalities at the Erez Crossing in December 1987,
[36]
Mazin Qumsiyeh
argues, against
Donald Neff
, that it began with multiple youth demonstrations earlier in the preceding month.
[37]
Some sources consider that the perceived IDF failure in late November 1987 to stop a Palestinian guerrilla operation, the
Night of the Gliders
, in which six Israeli soldiers were killed, helped catalyze local Palestinians to rebel.
[36]
[38]
[39]
Mass demonstrations had occurred a year earlier when, after two Gaza students at
Birzeit University
had been shot by Israeli soldiers on campus on 4 December 1986, the Israelis responded with harsh punitive measures, involving summary arrest, detention and systematic beatings of handcuffed Palestinian youths, ex-prisoners and activists, some 250 of whom were detained in four cells inside a converted army camp, known popularly as
Ansar 11
, outside Gaza city.
[40]
A policy of deportation was introduced to intimidate activists in January 1987. Violence simmered as a schoolboy from
Khan Yunis
was shot dead by Israeli soldiers pursuing him in a Jeep. Over the summer the IDF's Lieutenant Ron Tal, who was responsible for guarding detainees at Ansar 11, was shot dead at point-blank range while stuck in a Gaza traffic jam. A curfew forbidding Gaza residents from leaving their homes was imposed for three days, during the Islamic holiday of
Eid al-Adha
. In two incidents on 1 and 6 October 1987, respectively, the
IDF
ambushed and killed seven Gaza men, reportedly affiliated with
Islamic Jihad
, who had escaped from prison in May.
[41]
Some days later, a 17-year-old schoolgirl, Intisar al-'Attar, was shot in the back while in her schoolyard in
Deir al-Balah
by a settler in the Gaza Strip.
[42]
The Arab summit in
Amman
in November 1987 focused on the
Iran?Iraq War
, and the Palestinian issue was shunted to the sidelines for the first time in years.
[43]
[44]
Timeline of the Intifada
Israel's occupation and Palestinian unrest
Israel's drive into the occupied territories had occasioned spontaneous acts of resistance, but the administration, pursuing an "iron fist" policy of deportations,
demolition of homes
, collective punishment, curfews and the suppression of political institutions, was confident that Palestinian resistance was exhausted. The assessment that the unrest would collapse proved to be mistaken.
[45]
On 8 December 1987, an Israeli army tank transporter crashed into a row of cars containing Palestinians returning from working in Israel, at the
Erez checkpoint
. Four Palestinians, three of them residents of the
Jabalya
refugee camp, the largest of the eight refugee camps in the Gaza Strip, were killed and seven others seriously injured. The traffic incident was witnessed by hundreds of Palestinian labourers returning home from work.
[46]
The funerals, attended by 10,000 people from the camp that evening, quickly led to a large demonstration. Rumours swept the camp that the incident was an act of intentional retaliation for the stabbing to death of an Israeli businessman, killed while shopping in Gaza two days earlier.
[47]
[48]
Following the throwing of a petrol bomb at a passing patrol car in the Gaza Strip on the following day, Israeli forces, firing with live ammunition and tear gas canisters into angry crowds, shot one young Palestinian dead and wounded 16 others.
[49]
[50]
On 9 December, several popular and professional Palestinian leaders held a press conference in West Jerusalem with the
Israeli League for Human and Civil Rights
in response to the deterioration of the situation. While they convened, reports came in that demonstrations at the Jabalya camp were underway and that a 17-year-old youth had been shot to death after throwing a petrol bomb at Israeli soldiers. She would later become known as the first
martyr
of the intifada.
[51]
[52]
Protests rapidly spread into the West Bank and East Jerusalem. Youths took control of neighbourhoods, closed off camps with barricades of garbage, stone and
burning tires
, meeting soldiers who endeavoured to break through with petrol bombs. Palestinian shopkeepers closed their businesses, and labourers refused to turn up to their work in Israel. Israel defined these activities as 'riots', and justified the repression as necessary to restore 'law and order'.
[53]
Within days the occupied territories were engulfed in a wave of demonstrations and commercial strikes on an unprecedented scale. Specific elements of the occupation were targeted for attack: military vehicles, Israeli buses and Israeli banks. None of the dozen Israeli settlements were attacked and there were no Israeli fatalities from stone-throwing at cars at this early period of the outbreak.
[54]
Equally unprecedented was the extent of mass participation in these disturbances: tens of thousands of civilians, including women and children. The Israeli security forces used the full panoply of crowd control measures to try and quell the disturbances: cudgels, nightsticks,
tear gas
, water cannons, rubber bullets, and live ammunition. But the disturbances only gathered momentum.
[55]
Soon there was widespread
rock-throwing
, road-blocking and tire burning throughout the territories. By 12 December, six Palestinians had died and 30 had been injured in the violence. The next day, rioters threw a gasoline bomb at the U.S. consulate in
East Jerusalem
though no one was hurt.
[52]
The Israeli police and military response also led to a number of injuries and deaths. The IDF killed many Palestinians at the beginning of the Intifada, the majority killed during demonstrations and riots. Since initially a high proportion of those killed were civilians and youths, Yitzhak Rabin adopted a fallback policy of 'might, power and beatings'.
[56]
Israel used
mass arrests
of Palestinians, engaged in collective punishments like closing down West Bank universities for most years of the intifada, and West Bank schools for a total of 12 months.
Hebron University
was closed by the army from January 1988 to June 1991.
[57]
Round-the-clock curfews were imposed over 1600 times in just the first year. Communities were cut off from supplies of water, electricity and fuel. At any one time, 25,000 Palestinians would be confined to their homes. Trees were uprooted on Palestinians farms, and agricultural produce blocked from being sold. In the first year over 1,000 Palestinians had their homes either demolished or blocked up. Settlers also engaged in private attacks on Palestinians. Palestinian refusals to pay taxes were met with confiscations of property and licenses, new car taxes, and heavy fines for any family whose members had been identified as stone-throwers.
[58]
Casualties
In the first year in the Gaza Strip alone, 142 Palestinians were killed, while no Israelis died. 77 were shot dead, and 37 died from tear-gas inhalation. 17 died from beatings at the hand of Israeli police or soldiers.
[59]
During the whole six-year intifada, the Israeli army killed from 1,087 to 1,204 (or 1,284)
[21]
[60]
[61]
Palestinians, 241/332
[61]
being children. Tens of thousands were arrested (some sources said 57,000;
[19]
[61]
others said 120,000),
[62]
481 were deported while 2,532 had their houses razed to the ground.
[61]
Between December 1987 and June 1991, 120,000 were injured, 15,000 arrested and 1,882 homes demolished.
[63]
One journalistic calculation reports that in the Gaza Strip alone from 1988 to 1993, some 60,706 Palestinians suffered injuries from shootings, beatings or tear gas.
[64]
In the first five weeks alone, 35 Palestinians were killed and some 1,200 wounded. Some regarded the Israeli response as encouraging more Palestinians into participating.
[65]
B'Tselem
calculated 179 Israelis killed, while official Israeli statistics place the total at 200 over the same period. 3,100 Israelis, 1,700 of them soldiers, and 1,400 civilians suffered injuries.
[64]
By 1990
Ktzi'ot Prison
in the
Negev
held approximately one out of every 50 West Bank and Gazan males older than 16 years.
[66]
Gerald Kaufman
remarked: "[F]riends of Israel as well as foes have been shocked and saddened by that country's response to the disturbances."
[67]
In an article in the London Review of Books,
John Mearsheimer
and
Stephen Walt
asserted that IDF soldiers were given
truncheons
and encouraged to break the bones of Palestinian protesters. The
Swedish
branch of
Save the Children
estimated that "23,600 to 29,900 children required medical treatment for their beating injuries in the first two years of the Intifada", one third of whom were children under the age of ten years.
[68]
Israel adopted a policy of arresting key representatives of Palestinian institutions. After lawyers in Gaza went on strike to protest their inability to visit their detained clients, Israel detained the deputy head of its association without trial for six months. Dr. Zakariya al-Agha, the head of the Gaza Medical Association, was likewise arrested and held for a similar period of detention, as were several women active in Women's Work Committees. During Ramadan, many camps in Gaza were placed under curfew for weeks, impeding residents from buying food, and
Al-Shati
, Jabalya and
Burayj
were subjected to saturation bombing by tear gas. During the first year of the Intifada, the total number of casualties in the camps from such bombing totalled 16.
[69]
Between 1988 and 1992, intra-Palestinian violence claimed the lives of nearly 1,000.
[70]
By June 1990, according to
Benny Morris
, "[T]he Intifada seemed to have lost direction. A symptom of the PLO's frustration was the great increase in the killing of suspected collaborators."
[71]
Roughly 18,000 Palestinians, compromised by Israeli intelligence, are said to have given information to the other side.
[26]
Collaborators were threatened with death or ostracism unless they desisted, and if their collaboration with the Occupying Power continued, were executed by special troops such as the "Black Panthers" and "Red Eagles". An estimated 771 (according to
Associated Press
) to 942 (according to the IDF) Palestinians were executed on suspicion of collaboration during the span of the Intifada.
[72]
Palestinian leadership
The Intifada was not initiated by any single individual or organization. Local leadership came from groups and organizations affiliated with the PLO that operated within the Occupied Territories;
Fatah
, the
Popular Front
, the
Democratic Front
and the
Palestine Communist Party
.
[73]
The PLO's rivals in this activity were the Islamic organizations,
Hamas
and
Islamic Jihad
as well as local leadership in cities such as
Beit Sahour
and
Bethlehem
. However, the intifada was predominantly led by community councils led by
Hanan Ashrawi
,
Faisal Husseini
and
Haidar Abdel-Shafi
, that promoted independent networks for education (underground schools as the regular schools were closed by the military in reprisal), medical care, and food aid.
[74]
The
Unified National Leadership of the Uprising
(UNLU) gained credibility where the Palestinian society complied with the issued communiques.
[73]
There was a collective commitment to abstain from lethal violence, a notable departure from past practice,
[75]
which, according to Shalev arose from a calculation that recourse to arms would lead to an Israeli bloodbath and undermine the support they had in Israeli liberal quarters. The PLO and its chairman Yassir Arafat had also decided on an unarmed strategy, in the expectation that negotiations at that time would lead to an agreement with Israel.
[59]
Pearlman attributes the non-violent character of the uprising to the movement's internal organization and its capillary outreach to neighborhood committees that ensured that lethal revenge would not be the response even in the face of Israeli state repression.
[76]
Hamas and Islamic Jihad cooperated with the leadership at the outset, and throughout the first year of the uprising conducted no armed attacks, except for the stabbing of a soldier in October 1988, and the detonation of two roadside bombs, which had no impact.
[77]
Pivot to the two-state solution
Leaflets publicizing the intifada aims demanded the complete withdrawal of Israel from the territories it had occupied in 1967: the lifting of curfews and checkpoints; it appealed to Palestinians to join in civic resistance, while asking them not to employ arms, since military resistance would only invite devastating retaliation from Israel; it also called for the establishment of the Palestinian state on the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, abandoning the standard rhetorical calls, still current at the time, for the "liberation" of all of Palestine.
[78]
Other notable events
Assassination of Abu Jihad
On 16 April 1988, a leader of the PLO,
Khalil al-Wazir,
nom de guerre
Abu Jihad or 'Father of the Struggle'
, was assassinated in
Tunis
by an Israeli commando squad. Israel claimed he was the 'remote-control "main organizer" of the revolt', and perhaps believed that his death would break the back of the intifada. During the mass demonstrations and mourning in Gaza that followed, two of the main mosques of Gaza were raided by the IDF and worshippers were beaten and tear-gassed.
[79]
In total between 11 and 15 Palestinians were killed during the demonstrations and riots in Gaza and West Bank that followed al-Wazir's death.
[80]
In June of that year, the
Arab League
agreed to support the intifada financially at the
1988 Arab League summit
. The Arab League reaffirmed its financial support in the 1989 summit.
[81]
Israeli defense minister
Yitzhak Rabin
's response was: "We will teach them there is a price for refusing the laws of Israel."
[82]
When time in prison did not stop the activists, Israel crushed the boycott by imposing heavy fines and seizing and disposing of equipment, furnishings, and goods from local stores, factories and homes.
[83]
1990 Temple Mount killings
On 8 October 1990, 22 Palestinians were killed by Israeli police during the
1990 Temple Mount killings
at
Al-Aqsa
. This led the Palestinians to adopt more lethal tactics, with three Israeli civilians and one IDF soldier stabbed in Jerusalem and Gaza two weeks later. Incidents of stabbing persisted.
[84]
The Israeli state apparatus carried out contradictory and conflicting policies that were seen to have injured Israel's own interests, such as the closing of educational establishments (putting more youths onto the streets) and issuing the
Shin Bet
list of collaborators.
[85]
Suicide bombings
by Palestinian militants started on 16 April 1993 with the
Mehola Junction bombing
, carried at the end of the Intifada.
[86]
Response by the United Nations
The large number of Palestinian casualties provoked international condemnation. In subsequent resolutions, including
607
and
608
, the Security Council demanded Israel cease deportations of Palestinians. In November 1988, Israel was condemned by a large majority of the
UN General Assembly
for its actions against the intifada. The resolution was repeated in the following years.
[87]
Security Council
On 17 February 1989, the
UN Security Council
drafted a resolution condemning Israel for disregarding Security Council resolutions, as well as for not complying with the
fourth Geneva Convention
. The United States, put a veto on a draft resolution which would have strongly deplored it. On 9 June, the US again put a veto on a resolution. On 7 November, the US vetoed a third draft resolution, condemning alleged Israeli violations of human rights
[88]
On 14 October 1990, Israel openly declared that it would not abide
Security Council Resolution 672
because it did not pay attention to attacks on Jewish worshippers at the
Western Wall
.
[89]
Israel refused to receive a delegation of the Secretary-General, which would investigate Israeli violence. The following
Resolution 673
made little impression and Israel kept on obstructing UN investigations.
[90]
Outcome
Impact on Israel's reputation
The Intifada was recognized as an occasion where the Palestinians acted cohesively and independently of their leadership or assistance of neighbouring Arab states.
[91]
[92]
[6]
The Intifada broke the image of Jerusalem as a united Israeli city. There was unprecedented international coverage, and the Israeli response was criticized in media outlets and international fora.
[91]
[93]
[94]
The impact on the Israeli services sector, including the important Israeli tourist industry, was notably negative.
[95]
The success of the Intifada gave
Arafat
and his followers the confidence they needed to moderate their political programme: At the meeting of the Palestine National Council in Algiers in mid-November 1988, Arafat won a majority for the historic decision to recognise Israel's legitimacy; to accept all the relevant UN resolutions going back to 29 November 1947; and to adopt the principle of a
two-state solution
.
[96]
Jordan severs ties with the West Bank
Jordan severed its residual administrative and financial ties to the West Bank in the face of sweeping popular support for the
PLO
.
[97]
The failure of the "Iron Fist" policy, Israel's deteriorating international image, Jordan cutting legal and administrative ties to the West Bank, and the U.S.'s recognition of the PLO as the representative of the Palestinian people forced Rabin to seek an end to the violence though negotiation and dialogue with the PLO.
[98]
[99]
Timeline of the Palestinian uprisings
See also
Notes
References
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, p. 165
- ^
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on 6 April 2019
. Retrieved
19 March
2014
.
- ^
"Profile: Marwan Barghouti"
BBC News
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- ^
a
b
c
Nami Nasrallah, 'The First and Second Palestinian
intifadas
,' in David Newman, Joel Peters (eds.)
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- ^
a
b
c
Kober, Avi. "From Blitzkrieg To Attrition: Israel's Attrition Strategy and Staying Power."
Small Wars & Insurgencies
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a
b
Eitan Alimi (9 January 2007).
Israeli Politics and the First Palestinian Intifada: Political Opportunities, Framing Processes and Contentious Politics
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ISBN
978-0-203-96126-1
.
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.
HISTORY
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15 February
2020
.
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Lockman; Beinin (1989)
, p.
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ISBN
978-0-89608-363-9
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Michael Omer-Man
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21 August
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- ^
Ruth Margolies Beitler,
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, Lexington Books, 2004 p.xi.
- ^
Lustick, Ian S. (1993). Brynen, Rex; Hiltermann, Joost R.; Hudson, Michael C.; Hunter, F. Robert; Lockman, Zachary; Beinin, Joel; McDowall, David; Nassar, Jamal R.; Heacock, Roger (eds.). "Writing the Intifada: Collective Action in the Occupied Territories".
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.
ISSN
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.
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.
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"BBC NEWS"
.
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Walid Salem, 'Human Security from Below: Palestinian Citizens Protection Strategies, 1988?2005,' in Monica den Boer, Jaap de Wilde (eds.),
The Viability of Human Security,
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- ^
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.
www.hrw.org
. Retrieved
15 February
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.
- ^
a
b
c
Audrey Kurth Cronin 'Endless wars and no surrender,' in Holger Afflerbach, Hew Strachan (eds.)
How Fighting Ends: A History of Surrender,
Oxford University Press 2012 pp. 417?433 p. 426.
- ^
Wendy Pearlman,
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Cambridge University Press 2011,
p. 114
.
- ^
a
b
"Fatalities in the first Intifada"
.
B'tselem
. Retrieved
8 December
2023
.
- ^
B'Tselem
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Mient Jan Faber, Mary Kaldor, 'The deterioration of human security in Palestine,' in Mary Martin, Mary Kaldor (eds.)
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, Routledge, 2009 pp. 95?111.
- ^
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, Taylor & Francis 2004, p. 284.
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Human Rights Watch
,
Israel, the Occupied West Bank and Gaza Strip, and the Palestinian Authority Territories
, November, 2001. Vol. 13, No. 4(E), p. 49
- ^
a
b
Amitabh Pal,
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, ABC-CLIO, 2011 p. 191.
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Lockman; Beinin (1989)
, p.
[1]
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Ackerman; DuVall (2000)
, p
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- ^
Ackerman; DuVall (2000)
, p
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Robinson, Glenn E. "The Palestinians."
The Contemporary Middle East
, Third Edition. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 2013. 126?127.
- ^
Helena Cobban
, 'The PLO and the Intifada', in Robert Owen Freedman, (ed.)
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, University Press of Florida, 1991 pp. 70?106, pp. 94?95.'must be considered as an essential part of the backdrop against which the intifada germinated'.(p. 95)
- ^
Helena Cobban
, 'The PLO and the Intifada', p. 94. In the immediate aftermath of the 6 Day War in 1967, some 15,000 Gazans had been deported to Egypt. A further 1,150 were deported between September 1967 and May 1978. This pattern was drastically curtailed by the
Likud
governments under
Menachem Begin
between 1978 and 1984.
- ^
a
b
Morris, Benny (2001).
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Anita Vitullo, 'Uprising in Gaza,' in Lockman and Beinin 1989 pp. 43?55 pp. 43?44.
- ^
Vitullo, p. 44 The first incident involved two unarmed men, one a well-known Gaza businessman, at a roadblock. The second occurred in a residential raid, where subsequently a small cache of weapons were found in the cars of four men. The army them bulldozed their homes. A general strike took place, and in response Israel arrested and ordered the deportation of Shaykh 'Abd al-'Aziz Awad, who was held responsible for the growth of popular support for Islamic Jihad, on 15 November.
- ^
Vitullo, pp45-6. The settlers did not report the killing. An Israeli schoolteacher was arrested for the incident after a ballistics test was undertaken, but an Israel judge released him after a week, in the wake of Israeli settler protests. Settlers said she had been throwing stones.
- ^
Shalev (1991)
, p. 33.
- ^
Nassar; Heacock (1990)
, p.
31.
- ^
Mark Tessler,
A History of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict,
Indiana University Press, 1994 p. 677.
- ^
Vitullo p. 46.
- ^
Ruth Margolies Beitler,
The Path to Mass Rebellion: An Analysis of Two Intifadas
, Lexington Books, 2004 p.xiii.
- ^
Vitullo, p. 46:'Although Palestinians rushed to aid the man, no one cooperated with military interrogators, who arrested scores of people and clamped a curfew on the area.'
- ^
Ruth Margolies Beitler,
The Path to Mass Rebellion: An Analysis of Two Intifadas
, p. 116 n.75.
- ^
Tessler,
A History of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict
, pp. 677-8.
- ^
Vitullo, p. 46. writes 20-year-old man.
- ^
a
b
'Intifada,' in David Seddon,(ed.)
A Political and Economic Dictionary of the Middle East
, p. 284.
- ^
Vitullo p. 47 challenges this:'To the contrary, the protests showed restraint and rationality. . .Demonstrations were not "peaceful" but neither did they turn Palestinians into mindless mobs. Youths stripped one Israeli down to his underwear in front of Shifa hospital, but then let him run back to his fellow soldiers. A young Palestinian took another soldier's rifle away from him, broke it in two, then handed it back'.
- ^
Vitullo, p. 47
- ^
Shlaim (2000)
, pp. 450?1.
- ^
Audrey Kurth Cronin, 'How fighting ends: asymmetric wars, terrorism and suicide bombing,' inHolger Afflerbach,
Hew Strachan
(eds.)
How Fighting Ends: A History of Surrender
, Oxford University Press, 2012 pp. 417-433, p. 426
- ^
Middle East International No 400, 17 May 1991, Publishers
Lord Mayhew
,
Dennis Walters
MP; p. 15 ‘fourteen days in brief’
- ^
Pearlman, p. 115.
- ^
a
b
Jean-Pierre Filiu
,
Gaza: A History
, Oxford University Press p. 206.
- ^
Rami Nasrallah, 'The First and Second Palestinian Intifadas,' in Joel Peters, David Newman (eds.)
The Routledge Handbook on the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict
, Routledge 2013 pp. 56?68 p. 61
- ^
a
b
c
d
Juan Jose Lopez-Ibor, Jr., George Christodoulou, Mario Maj, Norman Sartorius, Ahmed Okasha (eds.),
Disasters and Mental Health.
John Wiley & Sons, 2005 p. 231.
- ^
WRMEA
Donald Neff
The Intifada Erupts, Forcing Israel to Recognize Palestinians
- ^
Sumantra Bose,
Contested Lands: Israel-Palestine, Kashmir, Bosnia, Cyprus, and Sri Lanka,
Harvard University Press
, 2007 p. 243
- ^
a
b
Nami Nasrallah, 'The First and Second Palestinian
intifadas
,' in David Newman, Joel Peters (eds.)
Routledge Handbook on the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict,
Routledge, 2013, pp. 56?67, p. 56.
- ^
Ruth Margolies Beitler,
The Path to Mass Rebellion: An Analysis of Two Intifadas
, p. 120
- ^
Human Rights Watch (HRW) (1991)
Prison Conditions in Israel and the Occupied Territories. A Middle East Watch Report.
Human Rights Watch.
ISBN
978-1-56432-011-7
. Pages 18, 64.
- ^
McDowall (1989)
, p.
2.
- ^
Mearsheimer, John
;
Walt, Stephen
(2006).
"The Israel Lobby"
.
London Review of Books
.
28
(6): 3?12.
- ^
Vitullo pp. 51-2,
- ^
"Collaborators, One Year Al-Aqsa Intifada Fact Sheets And Figures"
.
One Year Al-Aqsa Intifada Fact Sheets And Figures
. The
Palestinian Human Rights Monitoring Group
. Archived from
the original
on 6 June 2007
. Retrieved
15 May
2007
.
- ^
Morris (1999)
, p. 612.
- ^
Sergio Catignani,
Israeli Counter-Insurgency and the Intifadas: Dilemmas of a Conventional Army,
Routledge, 2008 pp. 81-84.
- ^
a
b
Lockman; Beinin (1989)
, p.
39.
- ^
MERIP
Archived
4 November 2013 at the
Wayback Machine
Palestine, Israel and the Arab-Israeli Conflict, A Primer
- ^
"What amazed this writer . .was the interesting departure from the norms of the past. Palestinians in the Occupied Territories were continuously insisting that they would not resort to arms. Any escalation in the use of violence on their part would be as a last resort, for defensive purposes only", Souad Dajani, cited Pearlman,
Violence, Nonviolence, and the Palestinian National Movement
, p. 106
- ^
ePearlman, ibid. p. 107.
- ^
Pearlman, p. 112.
- ^
Walid Salem p. 189
- ^
Anita Vitullo, pp. 50-1
- ^
UN (31 July 1991).
"THE QUESTION OF PALESTINE 1979?1990"
. United Nations. Archived from
the original
on 4 November 2013
. Retrieved
14 April
2015
.
- ^
Sela, Avraham
. "Arab Summit Conferences."
The Continuum Political Encyclopedia of the Middle East
. Ed. Sela. New York: Continuum, 2002. pp. 158-160
- ^
Sosebee, Stephen J. "The Passing of Yitzhak Rabin, Whose 'Iron Fist' Fueled the Intifada"
The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs.
31 October 1990. Vol. IX #5, pg. 9
- ^
Aburish, Said K.
(1998).
Arafat: From Defender to Dictator
. New York:
Bloomsbury Publishing
pp. 201-228
ISBN
978-1-58234-049-4
- ^
Ruth Margolies Beitler,
The Path to Mass Rebellion: An Analysis of Two Intifadas
, p. 128.
- ^
Nassar; Heacock (1990)
, p.
115.
- ^
Jeffrey Ivan Victoroff (2006).
Tangled Roots: Social and Psychological Factors in the Genesis of Terrorism
. IOS Press. p. 204.
ISBN
978-1-58603-670-6
.
- ^
Resolution 44/2 of 06.10.89; Resolution 45/69 of 06.12.90; Resolution 46/76 of 11.12.91
- ^
Yearbook of the United Nations 1989
Archived
4 November 2013 at the
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, Chapter IV, Middle East. 31 December 1989.
- ^
Cuellar, Javier Perez de
(1997).
Pilgrimage for peace: a Secretary-General's memoir
. Palgrave Macmillan. p.
96
.
ISBN
978-0-312-16486-7
.
- ^
Division for Palestinian Rights (DPR),
The question of Palestine 1979?1990
Archived
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Wayback Machine
, Chapter II, section E.
The intifadah and the need to ensure the protection of the Palestinians living under Israeli occupation
. 31 July 1991.
- ^
a
b
McDowall (1989)
, p.
[2]
- ^
Nassar; Heacock (1990)
, p.
1.
- ^
UNGA,
Resolution "43/21. The uprising (intifadah) of the Palestinian people"
Archived
14 January 2013 at the
Wayback Machine
. 3 November 1988 (doc.nr. A/RES/43/21).
- ^
Shlaim (2000)
, p. 455.
- ^
Noga Collins-kreiner, Nurit Kliot, Yoel Mansfeld, Keren Sagi (2006)
Christian Tourism to the Holy Land: Pilgrimage During Security Crisis
Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.,
ISBN
978-0-7546-4703-4
and
ISBN
978-0-7546-4703-4
- ^
Shlaim (2000)
, p. 466.
- ^
Pearlman, p. 113
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Shlaim (2000)
, pp. 455?7.
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Foreign Policy Research Institute
Archived
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Yitzhak Rabin: An Appreciation By Harvey Sicherman
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