European visible and near-infrared space observatory
Euclid
Artist's impression
|
Names
| Dark Universe Explorer (DUNE)
Spectroscopic All Sky Cosmic Explorer (SPACE)
[1]
|
---|
|
Mission type
| Astronomy
|
---|
Operator
| ESA
|
---|
COSPAR ID
| 2023-092A
|
---|
SATCAT
no.
| 57209
|
---|
Website
| sci.esa.int/euclid
euclid-ec.org
|
---|
Mission duration
| 6 years (nominal)
10 months and 21 days (in progress)
[2]
|
---|
|
|
|
Manufacturer
| Thales Alenia Space
(main)
Airbus Defence and Space
(payload module)
[3]
|
---|
Launch mass
| 2,000 kg (4,400 lb)
[3]
|
---|
Payload mass
| 800 kg (1,800 lb)
[3]
|
---|
Dimensions
| 4.5 m × 3.1 m (15 ft × 10 ft)
[3]
|
---|
|
|
|
Launch date
| 1 July 2023 15:12 UTC
[4]
|
---|
Rocket
| Falcon 9
|
---|
Launch site
| Cape Canaveral
SLC-40
|
---|
Contractor
| SpaceX
|
---|
|
|
|
Reference system
| Sun?Earth L
2
[3]
|
---|
Regime
| Lissajous orbit
|
---|
Periapsis altitude
| 1,150,000 km (710,000 mi)
|
---|
Apoapsis altitude
| 1,780,000 km (1,110,000 mi)
|
---|
Epoch
| Planned
|
---|
|
|
|
Type
| Korsch telescope
|
---|
Diameter
| 1.2 m (3 ft 11 in)
[5]
|
---|
Focal length
| 24.5 m (80 ft)
[5]
|
---|
Collecting area
| 1.006 m
2
(10.83 sq ft)
[8]
|
---|
Wavelengths
| From 550
nm
(green)
[6]
to 2
μm
(near-
infrared
)
[7]
|
---|
Resolution
| 0.1
arcsec
(
visible
)
0.3
arcsec
(near-
infrared
)
[8]
|
---|
|
|
|
Band
| X band
(TT&C support)
K band
(data acquisition)
|
---|
Frequency
| 8.0?8.4 GHz (X band)
25.5?27 GHz (K band)
|
---|
Bandwidth
| Few kbit/s down & up (X band)
74 Mbit/s (K band)
[9]
|
---|
|
Instruments
|
---|
VIS
| VISible imager
[6]
|
---|
NISP
| Near Infrared Spectrometer and Photometer
[7]
|
---|
|
The ESA astrophysics insignia for Euclid mission
|
Euclid
is a wide-angle
space telescope
with a 600-megapixel camera to record
visible light
, a
near-infrared
spectrometer
, and
photometer
, to determine the
redshift
of detected
galaxies
. It was developed by the
European Space Agency
(ESA) and the Euclid Consortium and was launched on 1 July 2023.
[10]
[11]
After approximately one month, it reached its destination, a
halo orbit
around the Sun-Earth second
Lagrange point
L2, at an average distance of 1.5 million kilometres beyond Earth's orbit (or about four times the distance from the Earth to the Moon). There the telescope is expected to remain operational for at least six years. It joins the
Gaia
and
James Webb Space Telescope
missions at L2.
The objective of the
Euclid
mission is to better understand
dark energy
and
dark matter
by accurately measuring the
accelerating expansion of the universe
. To achieve this, the
Korsch
-type telescope will measure the shapes of
galaxies
at varying distances from Earth and investigate the relationship between distance and
redshift
.
Dark energy
is generally accepted as contributing to the increased
acceleration of the expanding universe
, so understanding this relationship will help to refine how
physicists
and
astrophysicists
understand it.
Euclid'
s mission advances and complements ESA's
Planck telescope
(2009 to 2013). The mission is named after the ancient Greek mathematician
Euclid
.
Euclid
is a medium-class ("M-class") mission and is part of the
Cosmic Vision
campaign of ESA's
Science Programme
. This class of missions have an ESA budget cap at around €500 million.
Euclid
was chosen in October 2011 together with
Solar Orbiter
, out of several competing missions.
[12]
Euclid
was launched by a
Falcon 9
.
[13]
[4]
On 7 November 2023 ESA revealed
Euclid
's first full-colour images of the cosmos. The telescope has created razor-sharp astronomical images across a large patch of the sky, looking far into the distant universe. The first five images illustrate
Euclid
's full potential to create the most extensive 3D map of the universe yet.
[14]
[15]
Scientific objectives and methods
[
edit
]
Euclid
will probe the history of the
expansion of the universe
and the
formation of cosmic structures
by measuring the redshift of
galaxies
out to a value of 2, which is equivalent to seeing back 10 billion years into the past.
[16]
The link between galactic shapes and their corresponding redshift will help to show how dark energy contributes to the increased acceleration of the universe. The methods employed exploit the phenomenon of
gravitational lensing
, measurement of
baryon acoustic oscillations
, and measurement of galactic distances by
spectroscopy
.
[17]
Gravitational lensing
(or gravitational shear) is a consequence of the deflection of light rays caused by the presence of matter that locally modifies the
curvature of space-time
: light emitted by galaxies, and therefore observed images, are distorted as they pass close to matter lying along the line of sight. This matter is composed partly of visible galaxies but it is mostly
dark matter
. By measuring this
shear
, the amount of dark matter can be inferred, furthering the understanding of how it is distributed in the
universe
.
[18]
Spectroscopic
measurements will permit measuring the redshifts of galaxies and determining their distances using
Hubble's Law
. In this way, one can reconstruct the three-dimensional distribution of galaxies in the
universe
.
[16]
From these data, it is possible to simultaneously measure the statistical properties concerning the distribution of dark matter and galaxies and measure how these properties change as the spacecraft looks further back in time. Highly precise images are required to provide sufficiently accurate measurements. Any distortion inherent in the sensors must be accounted for and calibrated out, otherwise the resultant data would be of limited use.
[16]
Spacecraft
[
edit
]
Euclid
emerged from two mission concepts that were proposed in response to the ESA Cosmic Vision 2015?2025 Call for Proposals, issued in March 2007: DUNE, the Dark Universe Explorer, and SPACE, the Spectroscopic All-Sky Cosmic Explorer. Both missions proposed complementary techniques to measure the geometry of the universe, and after an assessment study phase, a combined mission resulted. The new mission concept was called Euclid, honouring the Greek mathematician
Euclid of Alexandria
(~300 BC), who is considered the father of geometry. In October 2011,
Euclid
was selected by
ESA's
Science Programme Committee for implementation, and on 25 June 2012 it was formally adopted.
[1]
ESA
selected
Thales Alenia Space
's Italian division for the construction of the satellite in
Turin
.
Euclid
is 4.5 metres long with a diameter of 3.1 metres and a mass of 2 tonnes.
[3]
Meanwhile, the
Euclid
payload module was the responsibility of
Airbus Defence and Space
's French division in
Toulouse
. It consists of a Korsch telescope with a primary mirror 1.2 meters in diameter, which covers an area of 0.91
deg
2
.
[19]
[20]
An international consortium of scientists, the Euclid consortium, comprising scientists from 13 European countries and the United States, provided the visible-light camera (VIS)
[6]
and the
near-infrared
spectrometer
and
photometer
(NISP).
[7]
Together, they will map the 3D distribution of up to two billion galaxies spread over more than a third of the whole sky.
[21]
These large-format cameras will be used to characterise the
morphometric
,
photometric
and spectroscopic properties of galaxies.
Instruments
[
edit
]
- VIS, a camera operating at
visible wavelengths
(530?920 nm) made of a mosaic of 6 × 6
e2v
Charge Coupled Detectors
, containing 600 million pixels, allows measurement of the deformation of galaxies
[22]
- NISP, a camera composed of a mosaic of 4 × 4
Teledyne
H2RG detectors sensitive to
near-infrared
light radiation (920?2020 nm) with 65 million pixels, is designed for the following:
- provide low-precision measurements of redshifts, and thus distances, of over a billion galaxies from multi-color (3-filter (Y, J and H))
photometry
(
photometric redshift
technique); and
- use a
slitless spectrometer
to analyse the spectrum of light in
near-infrared
(920?1850 nm), to acquire precise
redshifts
and distances of millions of galaxies with an accuracy 10 times better than
photometric redshifts
, and to determine the
baryon acoustic oscillations
.
[23]
Spacecraft bus
[
edit
]
The telescope bus includes
solar panels
that provide power and stabilise the
orientation
and pointing of the telescope to better than 35
milliarcseconds
(170 nrad). The telescope is carefully insulated to ensure good thermal stability so as to not disturb the optical alignment.
[
citation needed
]
The telecommunications system is capable of transferring 850
gigabits
per day. It uses the
Ka band
and
CCSDS File Delivery Protocol
to send scientific data at a rate of 55 megabits per second during the allocated period of 4 hours per day to the 35 m dish
Cebreros ground station
in Spain, when the telescope is above the horizon.
Euclid
has an onboard storage capacity of at least 300
GB
.
[24]
[
failed verification
]
The service module (SVM) hosts most of the spacecraft subsystems:
[
citation needed
]
- TT&C ? Telemetry and Telecommand
- AOCS ? Attitude Orbit Control System
- CDMS ? Central Data Management System
- EPS ? Electrical Power System
- RCS ? Reaction Control System
- MPS ? Micro-Propulsion System
AOCS provides stable pointing with a dispersion beneath 35 milli-arcseconds per visual exposure. A high thermal stability is required to protect the telescope assembly from optical misalignments at those accuracies.
[24]
Milestones
[
edit
]
NASA
signed a
memorandum of understanding
with
ESA
on 24 January 2013 describing its participation in the mission. NASA provided 20 detectors for the near-infrared band instrument, which operate in parallel with a camera in the visible-light band. The instruments, the telescope, and the satellite were built in and are operated from Europe. NASA has also appointed 40 American scientists to be part of the Euclid consortium, which will develop the instruments and analyse the data generated by the mission. Currently, this consortium brings together more than 1000 scientists from 13 European countries and the United States.
[25]
In 2015,
Euclid
passed a preliminary design review, having completed a large number of technical designs as well as built and tested key components.
[26]
In December 2018,
Euclid
passed its critical design review, which validated the overall spacecraft design and mission architecture plan, and final spacecraft assembly was allowed to commence.
[27]
In July 2020, the two instruments (visible and NIR) were delivered to Airbus, Toulouse, France for integration with the spacecraft.
[28]
After Russia withdrew in 2022 from the Soyuz-planned launch of
Euclid
, the
ESA
reassigned it to a SpaceX Falcon 9 launch vehicle, which launched on 1 July 2023.
[13]
[29]
[11]
Mission execution and data
[
edit
]
Following a travel time of 30 days after launch, it began to orbit the Sun-Earth
Lagrangian point L2
[3]
in an eclipse-free
halo orbit
about 1 million km wide.
Upon receiving the initial images, a problem surfaced as scientists discovered a small gap in the spacecraft's hull. This gap allowed sunlight to infiltrate the imaging sensor, resulting in a degradation of image quality.
[30]
To tackle this issue, the team adjusted the spacecraft's orientation by a few degrees, effectively blocking sunlight from entering the identified gap. This corrective measure successfully resolved the problem.
[31]
During its nominal mission, which will last at least six years,
Euclid
will observe about 15,000 deg
2
(4.6 sr), about a third of the sky, focusing on the extragalactic sky (the sky facing away from the
Milky Way
).
[2]
It will generate approximately 100 gigabytes of compressed data per day throughout its six-year mission.
[32]
The survey will be complemented by additional observations of three deep fields to 5 times the
signal-to-noise
of the wide survey; the deep fields cover 50 deg
2
(15.2 msr).
[33]
The three fields will be regularly visited during the whole duration of the mission. They will be used as calibration fields and to monitor the telescope and instrument performance stability as well as to produce scientific data by observing the most distant galaxies and
quasars
in the universe.
[34]
Two of the deep fields will overlap with deep fields of existing surveys
[35]
and the third deep field is proposed as a location for one of the LSST deep drilling fields at the
Vera C. Rubin Observatory
.
[36]
To measure a photometric redshift for each galaxy with sufficient accuracy, the
Euclid
mission depends on additional photometric data obtained in at least four filters at optical wavelengths. This data will be obtained from ground-based telescopes located in both northern and southern hemispheres to cover the full 15,000 deg
2
of the mission.
[37]
[38]
In total each galaxy of the
Euclid
mission will get photometric information in at least seven different filters covering the whole range 460?2000 nm.
[39]
About 10 billion astronomical sources will be observed by
Euclid
, of which one billion will be used for
weak lensing
(to have their gravitational shear measured)
[40]
with a precision 50 times more accurate than is possible today using ground-based telescopes.
Euclid
will measure spectroscopic redshifts for at least 30 million objects to study
galaxy clustering
.
The scientific exploitation of this enormous data set will be carried out by a European-led consortium of more than 1200 people in over 100 laboratories in 18 countries (Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Romania, Spain, Switzerland, UK, Canada, US, and Japan).
[41]
The Euclid Consortium
[40]
is also responsible for the construction of the
Euclid
instrument payload and for the development and implementation of the Euclid
ground segment
which will process all data collected by the satellite. The laboratories contributing to the Euclid Consortium are funded and supported by their national space agencies, which also have the programmatic responsibilities of their national contribution, and by their national research structures (research agencies, observatories, universities). Overall, the Euclid Consortium contributes to about 25% of the total budget cost of the mission until completion.
[42]
The huge volume, diversity (space and ground, visible and near-infrared,
morphometry
, photometry, and spectroscopy) and the high level of precision of measurements demanded considerable care and effort in the data processing, making this a critical part of the mission.
ESA
, the national agencies and the Euclid Consortium are spending considerable resources to set up top-level teams of researchers and engineers in algorithm development, software development, testing and validation procedures, data archiving and data distribution infrastructures. In total, nine Science Data Centres spread over countries of the Euclid Consortium will process more than 170
petabytes
of raw input images over at least 6 years to deliver data products (images, catalogues spectra) in three main public data releases in the Science Archive System of the
Euclid
mission to the scientific community.
[43]
[39]
With its wide sky coverage and its catalogues of billions of
stars
and galaxies, the scientific value of data collected by the mission goes beyond the scope of
cosmology
. This database will provide the worldwide astronomical community with abundant sources and targets for the
James Webb Space Telescope
and
Atacama Large Millimeter Array
, as well as future missions such as the
European Extremely Large Telescope
,
Thirty Meter Telescope
,
Square Kilometer Array
, and the
Vera C. Rubin Observatory
.
[44]
Around the Sun ? Frame rotating with Earth ? Top view
Around the Sun ? Frame rotating with Earth ? Viewed from the Sun
Euclid
·
Earth
·
Sun-Earth L2
Gallery of first test images
[
edit
]
-
Euclid
scans across the night sky using a 'step-and-stare' method, combining separate measurements to form the largest cosmological survey ever conducted in the visible and near-infrared.
-
Early commissioning test image VIS instrument
-
Early commissioning test image NISP instrument
-
Early commissioning test image NISP instrument
grism
mode
Source:
[45]
Gallery
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
a
b
"Euclid overview"
.
esa.int
.
- ^
a
b
"Mission Characteristic ? Euclid Consortium"
. Euclid Consortium. 28 December 2015. Archived from
the original
on 16 March 2022
. Retrieved
26 April
2016
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
"FACT SHEET"
.
euclid
.
ESA
. 24 January 2023
. Retrieved
7 July
2023
.
- ^
a
b
"Falcon 9 Block 5 ? Euclid Telescope"
.
Next Spaceflight
. 5 June 2023
. Retrieved
5 June
2023
.
- ^
a
b
"Euclid Spacecraft ? Telescope"
.
ESA
. 24 January 2013
. Retrieved
13 April
2011
.
- ^
a
b
c
"Euclid VIS Instrument"
.
ESA
. 18 October 2019
. Retrieved
9 July
2020
.
- ^
a
b
c
"Euclid NISP Instrument"
.
ESA
. 19 September 2019
. Retrieved
9 July
2020
.
- ^
a
b
"Euclid ? Mapping the geometry of the dark Universe"
.
ESA
Earth Observation Portal. Archived from
the original
on 5 January 2022
. Retrieved
5 January
2022
.
- ^
"Follow Euclid's first months in space"
.
- ^
Miller, Katrina (1 July 2023).
"The Dark Universe Is Waiting. What Will the Euclid Telescope Reveal? ? The European Space Agency mission, which launched on Saturday, will capture billions of galaxies to create a cosmic map spanning space and time"
.
The New York Times
.
Archived
from the original on 1 July 2023
. Retrieved
2 July
2023
.
- ^
a
b
"Euclid successfully launched into space by Falcon 9 rocket"
. Interesting Engineering. 1 July 2023
. Retrieved
1 July
2023
.
- ^
"Mission Status"
.
European Space Agency
. Retrieved
23 November
2015
.
- ^
a
b
Foust, Jeff (20 October 2022).
"ESA moves two missions to Falcon 9"
.
SpaceNews
. Retrieved
20 October
2022
.
- ^
Miller, Katrina (7 November 2023).
"Euclid Telescope Dazzles With Detailed First Images of Our Universe - The European Space Agency's premier telescope captured new views of space, a small taste of what it is likely to accomplish in the coming years"
.
The New York Times
.
Archived
from the original on 7 November 2023
. Retrieved
8 November
2023
.
- ^
"Euclid's first images: The dazzling edge of darkness"
.
- ^
a
b
c
"ESA Science & Technology ? Science Goals"
.
sci.esa.int
.
- ^
"ESA Science & Technology ? What are baryonic acoustic oscillations?"
.
sci.esa.int
.
- ^
"ESA Science & Technology ? What is gravitational lensing?"
.
sci.esa.int
.
- ^
"ESA Science & Technology ? Payload Module"
.
sci.esa.int
.
- ^
"ESA Science & Technology ? Telescope"
.
sci.esa.int
.
- ^
"Thales Alenia Space kicks off Euclid construction"
.
esa.int
. 8 July 2013.
- ^
"ESA Science & Technology ? Euclid VIS instrument"
.
sci.esa.int
.
- ^
"ESA Science & Technology ? Euclid NISP instrument"
.
sci.esa.int
.
- ^
a
b
"ESA Science & Technology ? Service Module"
.
sci.esa.int
.
- ^
"La NASA participara en la mision de la ESA para estudiar el lado oscuro del Universo"
.
esa.int
(in Spanish). 24 January 2013.
- ^
"Euclid dark Universe mission ready to take shape"
.
ESA
. 17 December 2015
. Retrieved
17 December
2015
.
- ^
"Arianespace and ESA announce the Euclid satellite's launch contract for dark energy exploration"
.
esa.int
. 7 January 2020.
- ^
"The Euclid space telescope is coming together"
.
Space Daily
.
- ^
ESA Euclid Mission
, retrieved
1 July
2023
- ^
Quach, Katyanna.
"ESA's Euclid telescope beams back first test images"
.
www.theregister.com
. Retrieved
16 November
2023
.
- ^
Sullivan, Will.
"See the First Stunning Test Images From the Euclid Space Telescope"
.
Smithsonian Magazine
. Retrieved
16 November
2023
.
- ^
"Euclid calling: downloading the Universe"
.
www.esa.int
. Retrieved
16 November
2023
.
- ^
"Three Dark Fields for Euclid's Deep Survey"
. ESA. 12 June 2019
. Retrieved
11 December
2022
.
- ^
"Surveys"
.
Euclid Consortium
. Retrieved
5 August
2023
.
- ^
"Three Dark Fields for Euclid's Deep Survey"
. ESA. 12 June 2019
. Retrieved
8 January
2024
.
- ^
"SCOC endorsement of Euclid Deep Field South observations"
.
Vera C. Rubin Observatory
. 23 March 2022
. Retrieved
8 January
2024
.
- ^
Racca, Giuseppe D.; et al. (2016). "The Euclid mission design". In MacEwen, Howard A.; Fazio, Giovanni G.; Lystrup, Makenzie; Batalha, Natalie; Siegler, Nicholas; Tong, Edward C. (eds.).
Space Telescopes and Instrumentation 2016: Optical, Infrared, and Millimeter Wave
. Vol. 9904. pp. 99040O.
arXiv
:
1610.05508
.
doi
:
10.1117/12.2230762
.
S2CID
118513194
.
- ^
Poncet, Maurice; Dabin, Christophe; Buenadicha, Guillermo; Hoar, John; Zacchei, Andrea; Sauvage, Marc (2018).
"Euclid Science Ground Segment (SGS) Processing Operations Concept"
.
2018 SpaceOps Conference
.
doi
:
10.2514/6.2018-2433
.
ISBN
978-1-62410-562-3
.
- ^
a
b
"Euclid ? Mapping the Geometry of the Dark Universe Mission"
.
- ^
a
b
"Euclid Consortium ? A space mission to map the Dark Universe"
.
- ^
"About the Euclid Consortium and membership"
.
Euclid Consortium
. 15 April 2023
. Retrieved
3 July
2023
.
- ^
"Spaceflight Now | Breaking News | ESA's Euclid mission cleared to proceed into development"
.
- ^
"Panoramic Information Euclid Space Telescope: Unveiling the Secrets of the Dark Universe day 03/07/2023 ? Reportdome"
. 3 July 2023. Archived from
the original
on 21 July 2023
. Retrieved
7 July
2023
.
- ^
"ESA Science & Technology ? Legacy science (beyond cosmology)"
.
sci.esa.int
.
- ^
"Euclid test images tease of riches to come"
.
www.esa.int
. Retrieved
31 July
2023
.
External links
[
edit
]
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January
|
- ION SCV-007 & 008
(
Astrocast
× 4),
Orbiter SN1
† (
Unicorn-2G
†,
Unicorn-2H
†),
Vigoride-5
,
ICEYE
× 3,
Lynk Tower 03
,
Lynk Tower 04
,
NuSat
× 4,
Flock 4y
× 36,
KSF3
× 4,
Gama Alpha
,
Lemur-2
× 6,
Milspace-2 1
,
MilSpace-2 2
,
Platform 2
,
SpaceBEE
× 12,
- Shijian 23
- AMAN
†,
CIRCE 1
†,
CIRCE 2
†,
ForgeStar-0
†,
Prometheus 2A
†,
Prometheus 2B
†,
STORK-6
†
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(40 satellites)
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,
Shiyan 22A
,
Shiyan 22B
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,
Jilin-1 Hongwai-01A
× 2,
Jilin-1 Mofang-02A
× 3
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,
USA-342
/ CBAS-2
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× 3
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(56 satellites)
- Starlink G2-6
(49 satellites),
ION SCV-009
|
---|
February
| |
---|
March
| |
---|
April
|
- SDA Transport Layer Tranche 0 × 8
,
SDA Tracking Layer Tranche 0 × 2
- Intelsat 40e
/
TEMPO
- JUICE
- ION SCV-010
(
Kepler-20
,
Kepler-21
),
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× 3,
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,
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× 4,
Brokkr-1
,
DEWA SAT-2
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× 3, Sateliot_0 /
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(21 satellites)
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(46 satellites)
- O3b mPOWER 3
,
O3b mPOWER 4
|
---|
May
| |
---|
June
|
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(22 satellites)
- SpaceX CRS-28
(
Maya-5
,
Maya-6
)
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,
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- Starlink G5-11
(52 satellites)
- ION SCV-011
(
Unicorn-2I
),
Orbiter SN3
,
Blackjack Aces
× 4,
ICEYE
× 4,
NuSat
× 4,
GEISAT
,
Lemur-2
× 3,
MISR-A
,
MISR-B
,
SpaceBEE
× 12,
Tiger-4
,
XVI
- Jilin-1 Gaofen-03D
× 8,
Jilin-1 Gaofen-06A
× 30,
Jilin-1 Pingtai-02A
× 2
- SATRIA
- Shiyan 25
- Starlink G5-7
(47 satellites)
- USA-345
/
Orion 11
- Starlink G5-12
(56 satellites)
- Meteor-M №2-3
|
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July
| |
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August
| |
---|
September
| |
---|
October
| |
---|
November
|
- TJS-10
- Starlink G6-26
(23 satellites)
- Starlink G6-27
(23 satellites)
- ChinaSat 6E
- SpaceX CRS-29
- ION SCV-015
(
Lemur-2 NANAZ
,
OSW Cazorla
,
Unicorn-2J
,
Unicorn-2K
),
Aether-1
,
Aether-2
,
FalconSAT-X
,
ICEYE
× 4,
Pelican-1
,
B1B2 Barry
,
Flock-4q
× 36,
Lemur-2
× 10,
PEARL-1C
,
PEARL-1H
,
Platform 5
,
STORK-7 / Aman-1
- O3b mPOWER 5
,
O3b mPOWER 6
- Haiyang-3A
- Starlink G6-28
(23 satellites)
- Starlink G7-7
(22 satellites)
- Malligyong-1 F3
- Starlink G6-29
(23 satellites)
- Kosmos 2572
/ Razdan 1
- Starlink G6-30
(23 satellites)
|
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December
| |
---|
Launches are separated by dots ( ? ), payloads by commas ( , ), multiple names for the same satellite by slashes ( / ).
Crewed flights
are underlined. Launch failures are marked with the † sign. Payloads deployed from other spacecraft are (enclosed in parentheses).
|