American neuropsychiatrist
Eric Richard Kandel
(
German:
[?kand?l]
; born Erich Richard Kandel,
[
citation needed
]
November 7, 1929
[2]
) is an Austrian-born American
[2]
medical doctor
who specialized in
psychiatry
, a
neuroscientist
and a
professor
of
biochemistry
and
biophysics
at the
College of Physicians and Surgeons
at
Columbia University
. He was a recipient of the 2000
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
for his research on the
physiological
basis of
memory
storage in
neurons
. He shared the prize with
Arvid Carlsson
and
Paul Greengard
.
He is a Senior Investigator in the
Howard Hughes Medical Institute
. He was also the founding director of the Center for Neurobiology and Behavior, which is now the Department of Neuroscience at Columbia University. He currently serves on the Scientific Council of the
Brain & Behavior Research Foundation
. Kandel's popularized account chronicling his life and research,
In Search of Memory: The Emergence of a New Science of Mind
,
[3]
was awarded the 2006
Los Angeles Times
Book Prize
for Science and Technology.
Early years
[
edit
]
Eric's mother, Charlotte Zimels, was born in 1897 in
Kolomyya
,
Pokuttya
(modern
Ukraine
). She came from an
Ashkenazi Jewish
family. At that time Kolomyya was part of
Austria-Hungary
. His father, Hermann Kandel, was born in 1898 in
Olesko
,
Galicia
(then part of Austria-Hungary). At the beginning of
World War I
, his parents moved to
Vienna
,
Austria
, where they met and married in 1923.
Eric Kandel was born on November 7, 1929, in Vienna. Shortly after, Eric's father established a toy store. But, although thoroughly assimilated and acculturated, they left Austria after the country had been
annexed by Germany
in March 1938. As a result of
Aryanization
(
Arisierung
), attacks on Jews had escalated and Jewish property was being confiscated. When Eric was 9, he and his brother Ludwig, 14, boarded the
Gerolstein
at
Antwerp, Belgium
, and joined their uncle in
Brooklyn
on May 11, 1939, to be followed later by his parents.
After arriving in the United States and settling in Brooklyn, Kandel was tutored by his grandfather in Judaic studies and was accepted at the
Yeshiva of Flatbush
, from which he graduated in 1944. He attended Brooklyn's
Erasmus Hall High School
in the
New York City school system
.
[4]
Kandel's undergraduate major at
Harvard
was History and Literature. He wrote an undergraduate honors thesis on "The Attitude Toward National Socialism of Three German Writers:
Carl Zuckmayer
,
Hans Carossa
, and
Ernst Junger
". While at Harvard, a place where psychology was dominated by the work of
B. F. Skinner
, Kandel became interested in
learning
and
memory
. However, while Skinner championed a strict separation of psychology, as its own level of discourse, from biological considerations such as neurology, Kandel's work is essentially centered on an explanation of the relationships between psychology and neurology.
The world of neuroscience was opened up to Kandel when he met Anna Kris, whose parents
Ernst Kris
and
Marianne Rie
were psychoanalysts.
Sigmund Freud
, a pioneer in revealing the importance of unconscious neural processes, was at the root of Kandel's interest in the biology of motivation and
unconscious
and
conscious
memory.
[
citation needed
]
Medical school and early research
[
edit
]
In 1952 he started at the
New York University Medical School
. By graduation he was firmly interested in the biological basis of the mind. During this time he met his future wife,
Denise Bystryn
. Kandel was first exposed to research in
Harry Grundfest
's laboratory at Columbia University. Grundfest was known for using the
oscilloscope
to demonstrate that
conduction velocity
during an
action potential
depends on
axon
diameter. The researchers Kandel interacted with were contemplating the technical challenges of
intracellular recordings
of the electrical activity of the relatively small
neurons
of the vertebrate brain.
After starting his neurobiological work in the difficult thicket of the
electrophysiology
of the
cerebral cortex
, Kandel was impressed by the progress that had been made by
Stephen Kuffler
using a much more experimentally accessible system: neurons isolated from
marine invertebrates
. After becoming aware of Kuffler's work in 1955, Kandel graduated from medical school and learned from Stanley Crain how to make micro
electrodes
that could be used for intracellular recordings of
crayfish
giant
axons
.
Karl Lashley
, a well-known American neuropsychologist, had tried but failed to identify an anatomical locus for memory storage in the cortex of the brain. When Kandel joined the Laboratory of Neurophysiology at the US
National Institutes of Health
in 1957,
William Beecher Scoville
and
Brenda Milner
had recently described the patient
HM
, who had lost the ability to form new memories after removal of his
hippocampus
. Kandel took on the task of performing electrophysiological recordings from hippocampal
pyramidal neurons
. Working with Alden Spencer, he found electrophysiological evidence for action potentials in the
dendritic
trees of hippocampal neurons. The team also noticed the spontaneous pacemaker-like activity of these neurons, as well as a robust recurrent inhibition in the hippocampus. They provided the first intracellular records of the electrical activity that underlies the
epileptic
spike (the intracellular
paroxysmal depolarizing shift
) and the epileptic runs of spikes (the intracellular sustained depolarization). But, with respect to memory, there was nothing in the general electrophysiological properties of hippocampal neurons that suggested why the hippocampus was special for explicit memory storage.
Kandel began to realize that memory storage must rely on modifications in the
synaptic
connections between neurons and that the complex connectivity of the hippocampus did not provide the best system for study of the detailed function of synapses. Kandel was aware that comparative studies of behavior, such as those by
Konrad Lorenz
,
Niko Tinbergen
, and
Karl von Frisch
had revealed that simple forms of learning were found even in very simple animals. Kandel felt it would be productive to select a simple
animal model
that would facilitate electrophysiological analysis of the synaptic changes involved in learning and memory storage. He believed that, ultimately, the results would be found to be applicable to humans. This decision was not without risk: many senior biologists and psychologists believed that nothing useful could be learned about human memory by studying invertebrate physiology.
[
citation needed
]
In 1962, after completing his residency in psychiatry, Kandel went to Paris to learn about the marine mollusk
Aplysia californica
from
Ladislav Tauc
. Kandel had realized that simple forms of learning such as habituation, sensitization, classical conditioning, and operant conditioning could readily be studied with
ganglia
isolated from
Aplysia
. "While recording the behavior of a single cell in a ganglion, one nerve axon pathway to the ganglion could be stimulated weakly electrically as a conditioned [tactile] stimulus, while another pathway was stimulated as an unconditioned [pain] stimulus, following the exact protocol used for classical conditioning with natural stimuli in intact animals."
[
citation needed
]
Electrophysiological changes resulting from the combined stimuli could then be traced to specific synapses. In 1965 Kandel published his initial results, including a form of presynaptic
potentiation
that seemed to correspond to a simple form of learning.
Faculty member at New York University Medical School
[
edit
]
Kandel took a position in the Departments of Physiology and Psychiatry at the
New York University Medical School
, eventually forming the Division of Neurobiology and Behavior. Working with Irving Kupferman and Harold Pinsker, he developed protocols for demonstrating simple forms of learning by intact
Aplysia
. In particular, the researchers showed that the now famous
gill-withdrawal reflex
, by which the slug protects its tender gill tissue from danger, was sensitive to both habituation and sensitization. By 1971
Tom Carew
had joined the research group and helped extend the work from studies restricted to
short-term memory
to experiments that included physiological processes required for
long-term memory
.
By 1981, laboratory members including Terry Walters, Tom Abrams, and Robert Hawkins had been able to extend the
Aplysia
system into the study of
classical conditioning
, a finding that helped close the apparent gap between the simple forms of learning often associated with invertebrates and more complex types of learning more often recognized in vertebrates.
[5]
Along with the fundamental behavioral studies, other work in the lab traced the neuronal circuits of
sensory neurons
,
interneurons
, and
motor neurons
involved in the learned behaviors. This allowed analysis of the specific synaptic connections that are modified by learning in the intact animals. The results from Kandel's laboratory provided solid evidence for the mechanistic basis of learning as "a change in the functional effectiveness of previously existing
excitatory
connections."
[
citation needed
]
Kandel's winning of the 2000 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was a result of his work with
Aplysia
on the biological mechanisms of memory storage.
[5]
Molecular changes during learning
[
edit
]
Starting in 1966
James Schwartz
collaborated with Kandel on a biochemical analysis of changes in neurons associated with learning and memory storage. By this time it was known that long-term memory, unlike short-term memory, involved the synthesis of new proteins. By 1972 they had evidence that the
second messenger
molecule
cyclic AMP
(cAMP) was produced in
Aplysia
ganglia under conditions that cause short-term memory formation (
sensitization
). In 1974 Kandel moved his lab to Columbia University and became founding director of the Center for Neurobiology and Behavior. It was soon found that the neurotransmitter
serotonin
, acting to produce the second messenger cAMP, is involved in the molecular basis of sensitization of the gill-withdrawal reflex. By 1980, collaboration with Paul Greengard resulted in demonstration that
cAMP-dependent protein kinase
, also known as protein kinase A (PKA), acted in this biochemical pathway in response to elevated levels of cAMP. Steven Siegelbaum identified a potassium channel that could be regulated by PKA, coupling serotonin's effects to altered synaptic electrophysiology.
In 1983 Kandel helped form the
Howard Hughes Medical Research Institute
at Columbia devoted to molecular neural science. The Kandel lab then sought to identify proteins that had to be synthesized to convert short-term memories into long-lasting memories. One of the nuclear targets for PKA is the transcriptional control protein
CREB
(cAMP response element binding protein).
[6]
In collaboration with
David Glanzman
and Craig Bailey, Kandel identified CREB as being a protein involved in long-term memory storage. One result of CREB activation is an increase in the number of synaptic connections. Thus, short-term memory had been linked to functional changes in existing synapses, while long-term memory was associated with a change in the number of synaptic connections.
Experimental support for Hebbian learning
[
edit
]
Some of the synaptic changes observed by Kandel's laboratory provide examples of
Hebbian theory
. One article describes the role of Hebbian learning in the
Aplysia
siphon-withdrawal reflex.
[7]
The Kandel lab has also performed important experiments using transgenic mice as a system for investigating the molecular basis of memory storage in the vertebrate hippocampus.
[8]
[9]
[10]
Kandel's original idea that learning mechanisms would be conserved between all animals has been confirmed.
Neurotransmitters
, second messenger systems, protein
kinases
,
ion channels
, and
transcription factors
like CREB have been confirmed to function in both vertebrate and invertebrate learning and memory storage.
[11]
[12]
Continuing work at Columbia University
[
edit
]
Since 1974, Kandel actively contributes to science as a member of the Division of Neurobiology and Behavior at the Department of Psychiatry at Columbia University. In 2008, he and Daniela Pollak discovered that conditioning mice to associate a specific noise with protection from harm, a behavior called "learned safety", produces a behavioral antidepressant effect comparable to that of medications. This finding, reported in
Neuron
,
[13]
may inform further studies of the cellular interactions between antidepressants and behavioral treatments.
Kandel is also well known for the textbooks he has helped write, such as
Principles of Neural Science
.
[14]
First published in 1981 and now in its sixth edition, the book is often used as a teaching and reference text in medical schools and undergraduate and graduate programs. Kandel has been a member of the
National Academy of Sciences
since 1974.
[15]
He has also been at Columbia University since 1974 and lives in
New York City
.
Notable former members of his lab
[
edit
]
- James H. Schwartz 1964?1972: Coauthor of the influential textbook
Principles of Neural Science
.
[16]
- John H. (Jack) Byrne 1970?1975: Professor and Director of the Neuroscience Research Center at UT Health Science Center (Mcgovern Medical School); founder and editor of the research journal
Learning and Memory.
[17]
- Tom Carew
1970?1983: Professor and Dean of the Faculty of Arts and Sciences at New York University, Center for Neural Science. Past President of the Society for Neuroscience.
[18]
- Edgar T. Walters 1974?1980: Professor at the Medical School of the University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston.
[19]
- Kelsey C. Martin
1992?1999: Dean of the
David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA
and Professor in the Departments of Biological Chemistry, Psychiatry, and Biobehavioral Sciences.
[20]
Current views about Vienna
[
edit
]
When Kandel won the Nobel Prize in 2000, it was said in Vienna that he was an "Austrian" Nobel, something he found "typically Viennese: very opportunistic, very disingenuous, somewhat hypocritical". He also said it was "certainly not an Austrian Nobel, it was a Jewish-American Nobel". After that, he got a call from then Austrian president
Thomas Klestil
asking him, "How can we make things right?" Kandel said that first, Doktor-Karl-Lueger-Ring should be renamed;
Karl Lueger
was an anti-Semitic mayor of Vienna, cited by Hitler in
Mein Kampf
. The street was ultimately renamed in 2012.
[21]
Second, he wanted the Jewish intellectual community to be brought back to Vienna, with scholarships for Jewish students and researchers.
[22]
He also proposed a symposium on the response of Austria to Nazism.
[23]
Kandel has since accepted an honorary citizenship of Vienna and participates in the academic and cultural life of his native city,
[24]
similar to
Carl Djerassi
. Kandel's 2012 book,
The Age of Insight
?as expressed in its subtitle,
The Quest to Understand the Unconscious in Art, Mind, and Brain, from Vienna 1900 to the Present
[25]
?represents a wide-ranging historical attempt to place Vienna at the root of cultural modernism.
Awards
[
edit
]
Filmography
[
edit
]
Selected publications
[
edit
]
Books
[
edit
]
- Kandel, Eric R. (1976),
Cellular Basis of Behaviour: An Introduction to Behavioural Neurobiology
, New York: W.H. Freeman & Company,
ISBN
978-0-716-70522-2
- Kandel, Eric R. (1978),
A Cell - Biological Approach to Learning
, New York: Society for Neuroscience,
ISBN
978-0-916-11007-9
.
- Kandel, Eric R. (1979),
Behavioural Bio of Aplysia: Origin & Evolution
, New York: W.H. Freeman & Company,
ISBN
978-0-716-71070-7
.
- Kandel, Eric R.; Schwartz, James H.; Jessell, Thomas M.; Siegelbaum, Steven A.; Hudspeth, A. J. (2012) [1981],
Principles of Neural Science
(5th ed.), New York:
McGraw-Hill
,
ISBN
978-0-071-39011-8
.
- Kandel, Eric R. (1987),
Molecular Neurobiology in Neurology and Psychiatry
, New York: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins,
ISBN
978-0-881-67305-0
.
- Kandel, Eric R.; Jessell, Thomas M.; Schwartz, James H (1995),
Essentials of Neural Science and Behaviour
, New York: McGraw-Hill/Appleton & Lange,
ISBN
978-0-838-52245-5
.
- Kandel, Eric R. (2005),
Psychiatry, Psychoanalysis, and the New Biology of Mind
, New York: American Psychiatric Publishing,
ISBN
978-1-585-62199-6
.
- Kandel, Eric R. (2007),
In Search of Memory: The Emergence of a New Science of Mind
, New York: W. W. Norton & Company,
ISBN
978-0-393-32937-7
.
- Kandel, Eric R. (2012),
The Age of Insight: The Quest to Understand the Unconscious in Art, Mind, and Brain, from Vienna 1900 to the Present
, New York: Random House,
ISBN
978-1-4000-6871-5
.
- Kandel, Eric R. (2016),
Reductionism in Art and Brain Science: Bridging the Two Cultures
, New York: Columbia University Press,
ISBN
978-0-231-17962-1
.
- Kandel, Eric R. (2018),
The Disordered Mind: What Unusual Brains Tell Us About Ourselves
, New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux,
ISBN
9780374287863
.
Articles
[
edit
]
- Malleret G, Alarcon JM, Martel G, Takizawa S, Vronskaya S, Yin D, Chen IZ, Kandel ER, Shumyatsky GP (March 2010).
"Bidirectional regulation of hippocampal long-term synaptic plasticity and its influence on opposing forms of memory"
.
J. Neurosci
.
30
(10): 3813?25.
doi
:
10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1330-09.2010
.
PMC
6632240
.
PMID
20220016
.
- Akil H, Brenner S, Kandel E, Kendler KS, King MC, Scolnick E, Watson JD, Zoghbi HY (March 2010).
"Medicine. The future of psychiatric research: genomes and neural circuits"
.
Science
.
327
(5973): 1580?1.
doi
:
10.1126/science.1188654
.
PMC
3091000
.
PMID
20339051
.
- Simpson EH, Kellendonk C, Kandel E (March 2010).
"A possible role for the striatum in the pathogenesis of the cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia"
.
Neuron
.
65
(5): 585?96.
doi
:
10.1016/j.neuron.2010.02.014
.
PMC
4929859
.
PMID
20223196
.
- Si K, Choi YB, White-Grindley E, Majumdar A, Kandel ER (February 2010).
"Aplysia CPEB can form prion-like multimers in sensory neurons that contribute to long-term facilitation"
.
Cell
.
140
(3): 421?35.
doi
:
10.1016/j.cell.2010.01.008
.
PMID
20144764
.
S2CID
14305206
.
- Kandel ER (October 2009).
"The biology of memory: a forty-year perspective"
.
J. Neurosci
.
29
(41): 12748?56.
doi
:
10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3958-09.2009
.
PMC
6665299
.
PMID
19828785
.
- Muzzio IA, Levita L, Kulkarni J, Monaco J, Kentros C, Stead M, Abbott LF, Kandel ER (June 2009).
"Attention enhances the retrieval and stability of visuospatial and olfactory representations in the dorsal hippocampus"
.
PLOS Biol
.
7
(6): e1000140.
doi
:
10.1371/journal.pbio.1000140
.
PMC
2696347
.
PMID
19564903
.
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
"Eric R. Kandel - A Superstar of Science"
.
superstarsofscience.com
. Archived from
the original
on 10 August 2014
. Retrieved
4 May
2018
.
- ^
a
b
"Eric R. Kandel Curriculum Vitae"
.
nobelprize.org
. Retrieved
10 October
2018
.
- ^
Kandel, Eric R. (2006).
In Search of Memory: The Emergence of a New Science of Mind
.
W. W. Norton & Company
.
ISBN
978-0393329377
.
- ^
Eric R. Kandel: The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2000
,
Nobel Foundation
. Retrieved December 27, 2019. "My grandfather and I liked each other a great deal, and he readily convinced me that he should tutor me in
Hebrew
during the summer of 1939 so that I might be eligible for a scholarship at the Yeshiva of Flatbush, an excellent Hebrew parochial school that offered both secular and religious studies at a very high level. With his tutelage I entered the Yeshiva in the fall of 1939. By the time I graduated in 1944 I spoke Hebrew almost as well as
English
, had read through the five books of Moses; the books of Kings, the Prophets and the Judges in Hebrew; and also learned a smattering of the
Talmud
... In 1944, when I graduated from the Yeshiva of Flatbush elementary school, it did not have a high school yet. So I went instead to Erasmus Hall High School, a local public high school in Brooklyn that was then academically very strong."
- ^
a
b
Edythe McNamee and Jacque Wilson (14 May 2013).
"A Nobel Prize with help from sea slugs"
.
CNN
. Retrieved
2020-11-16
.
- ^
Kandel, Eric R. (May 14, 2012).
"The molecular biology of memory: cAMP, PKA, CRE, CREB-1, CREB-2, and CPEB"
.
Molecular Brain
.
5
: 14.
doi
:
10.1186/1756-6606-5-14
.
ISSN
1756-6606
.
PMC
3514210
.
PMID
22583753
.
- ^
Antonov, Igor; Antonova, Irina; Kandel, Eric R.; Hawkins, Robert D. (2003).
"Activity-Dependent Presynaptic Facilitation and Hebbian LTP Are Both Required and Interact during Classical Conditioning in
Aplysia
"
.
Neuron
.
37
(1): 135?147.
doi
:
10.1016/S0896-6273(02)01129-7
.
ISSN
0896-6273
.
PMID
12526779
.
S2CID
7839933
.
- ^
Huang, Yan-You; Zakharenko, Stanislav S.; Schoch, Susanne; Kaeser, Pascal S.; Janz, Roger; Sudhof, Thomas C.; Siegelbaum, Steven A.; Kandel, Eric R. (2005).
"Genetic evidence for a protein-kinase-A-mediated presynaptic component in NMDA-receptor-dependent forms of long-term synaptic potentiation"
.
PNAS
.
102
(26): 9365?9370.
Bibcode
:
2005PNAS..102.9365H
.
doi
:
10.1073/pnas.0503777102
.
PMC
1166627
.
PMID
15967982
.
- ^
Kojima, Nobuhiko; Wang, Jian; Mansuy, Isabelle M.; Grant, Seth G. N.; Mayford, Mark; Kandel, Eric R. (1997).
"Rescuing impairment of long-term potentiation in fyn-deficient mice by introducing Fyn transgene"
.
PNAS
.
94
(9): 4761?4765.
Bibcode
:
1997PNAS...94.4761K
.
doi
:
10.1073/pnas.94.9.4761
.
PMC
20798
.
PMID
9114065
.
.
- ^
Brandon, E. P.; Zhuo, M.; Huang, Y. Y.; Qi, M.; Gerhold, K. A.; Burton, E. R.; Kandel, G. S.; McKnight, R. L.; Idzerda (1995).
"Hippocampal long-term depression and depotentiation are defective in mice carrying a targeted disruption of the gene encoding the RI beta subunit of cAMP-dependent protein kinase"
.
PNAS
.
92
(19): 8851?8855.
Bibcode
:
1995PNAS...92.8851B
.
doi
:
10.1073/pnas.92.19.8851
.
PMC
41065
.
PMID
7568030
.
- ^
Bailey, Craig H.; Bartsch, Dusan; Kandel, Eric R. (1996), "Toward a molecular definition of long-term memory storage",
PNAS
,
93
(24): 13445?13452,
Bibcode
:
1996PNAS...9313445B
,
doi
:
10.1073/pnas.93.24.13445
,
PMC
33629
,
PMID
8942955
- ^
Kandel, Eric R. (2005), "The Molecular Biology of Memory Storage: A Dialog Between Genes and Synapses",
Bioscience Reports
,
24
(4?5): 475?522,
doi
:
10.1007/s10540-005-2742-7
,
PMID
16134023
,
S2CID
17773633
- ^
Pollak DD, Monje FJ, Zuckerman L,
Denny CA
, Drew MR, Kandel ER (October 2008).
"An animal model of a behavioral intervention for depression"
.
Neuron
.
60
(1): 149?61.
doi
:
10.1016/j.neuron.2008.07.041
.
PMC
3417703
.
PMID
18940595
.
- ^
Kandel, Eric R.; Schwartz, James H.; Jessell, Thomas M.; Siegelbaum, Steven A.; Hudspeth, A. J. (2012).
Principles of Neural Science
(5th ed.). McGraw-Hill.
ISBN
978-0071390118
.
- ^
"Eric R. Kandel"
.
www.nasonline.org
. Retrieved
2022-05-23
.
- ^
Pearce, Jeremy (March 24, 2006).
"Dr. James H. Schwartz, 73, Who Studied the Basis of Memory, Dies"
.
The New York Times
. Retrieved
December 27,
2019
.
- ^
"CV John H. Byrne"
(PDF)
. Retrieved
December 27,
2019
.
- ^
"NYU/CNS : Faculty : Core Faculty : Thomas J. Carew"
.
www.cns.nyu.edu
.
Archived
from the original on October 2, 2017
. Retrieved
May 4,
2018
.
- ^
"Edgar T. Walters, Ph.D."
Archived from
the original
on June 16, 2013
. Retrieved
August 29,
2013
.
- ^
"Kelsey C. Martin - Department of Biological Chemistry, UCLA"
.
www.biolchem.ucla.edu
. Retrieved
December 27,
2019
.
- ^
"Dr. Karl-Lueger-Ring to be renamed"
.
Austrian Times
. April 20, 2012. Archived from
the original
on March 7, 2014
. Retrieved
March 5,
2014
.
- ^
"Newsmakers".
Science
.
320
(5881): 1269. June 6, 2008.
doi
:
10.1126/science.320.5881.1269a
.
S2CID
220094511
.
- ^
Nobel Prize Winner Kandel Speaks of Brain, Snails, Memory Pill
Archived
October 1, 2015, at the
Wayback Machine
, Bloomberg April 7, 2006.
- ^
a
b
"Late homage: Nobel Prize winner Eric Kandel becomes honorary citizen of Vienna"
.
Jewish News
. December 24, 2008
. Retrieved
December 27,
2019
.
- ^
Kandel, Eric R. (2012).
The Age of Insight: The Quest to Understand the Unconscious in Art, Mind, and Brain, from Vienna 1900 to the Present
. New York: Random House.
ISBN
978-1-4000-6871-5
.
- ^
"Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences"
(PDF)
. American Academy of Arts and Sciences
. Retrieved
December 27,
2019
.
- ^
"APS Member History"
.
search.amphilsoc.org
. Retrieved
2022-05-23
.
- ^
"NAS Award for Scientific Reviewing"
. National Academy of Sciences. Archived from
the original
on March 18, 2011
. Retrieved
February 27,
2011
.
- ^
"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2000"
. Nobel Prize
. Retrieved
December 27,
2019
.
- ^
"Reply to a parliamentary question"
(PDF)
(in German). p. 1709
. Retrieved
December 27,
2019
.
- ^
"Benjamin Franklin Medal for Distinguished Achievement in the Sciences Recipients"
.
American Philosophical Society
. Retrieved
December 27,
2019
.
- ^
"Viktor Frankl Award"
. Retrieved
December 27,
2019
.
- ^
"New Fellows 2013"
. Royal Society
. Retrieved
December 27,
2019
.
- ^
"Prize Committee in Neuroscience 2007?2008"
. Archived from
the original
on 24 June 2012
. Retrieved
March 5,
2014
.
- ^
"Prize Committee in Neuroscience 2009?2010"
. Archived from
the original
on June 17, 2012
. Retrieved
March 5,
2014
.
- ^
"Professor Eric Richard Kandel HonFRSE - The Royal Society of Edinburgh"
. The Royal Society of Edinburgh
. Retrieved
December 27,
2019
.
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