The integrated, quantitative, and interdisciplinary approach to the study of environmental systems.
Environmental science
is an
interdisciplinary
academic field
that integrates
physics
,
biology
,
meteorology
,
mathematics
and
geography
(including
ecology
,
chemistry
,
plant science
,
zoology
,
mineralogy
,
oceanography
,
limnology
,
soil science
,
geology
and
physical geography
, and
atmospheric science
) to the study of the environment, and the solution of environmental problems. Environmental science emerged from the fields of
natural history
and
medicine
during the
Enlightenment
.
[1]
Today it provides an integrated, quantitative, and
interdisciplinary
approach to the study of
environmental systems
.
[2]
Environmental studies
incorporates more of the
social sciences
for understanding human relationships, perceptions and policies towards the environment.
Environmental engineering
focuses on design and technology for improving
environmental quality
in every aspect.
[
citation needed
]
Environmental scientists seek to understand the earth's physical, chemical, biological, and geological processes, and to use that knowledge to understand how issues such as
alternative energy
systems,
pollution control
and mitigation,
natural resource management
, and the
effects of global warming and climate change
influence and affect the natural systems and processes of earth.
Environmental issues
almost always include an interaction of physical, chemical, and biological processes. Environmental scientists bring a systems approach to the analysis of environmental problems. Key elements of an effective environmental scientist include the ability to relate space, and time relationships as well as quantitative analysis.
Environmental science came alive as a substantive, active field of scientific investigation in the 1960s and 1970s driven by (a) the need for a
multi-disciplinary
approach to analyze complex environmental problems, (b) the arrival of substantive
environmental laws
requiring specific environmental protocols of investigation and (c) the growing public awareness of a need for action in addressing environmental problems. Events that spurred this development included the publication of
Rachel Carson
's landmark environmental book
Silent Spring
[3]
along with major environmental issues becoming very public, such as the
1969 Santa Barbara oil spill
, and the
Cuyahoga River
of Cleveland, Ohio, "catching fire" (also in 1969), and helped increase the visibility of environmental issues and create this new field of study.
Terminology
[
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]
In common usage, "environmental science" and "ecology" are often used interchangeably, but technically,
ecology
refers only to the study of organisms and their interactions with each other as well as how they interrelate with environment. Ecology could be considered a subset of environmental science, which also could involve purely chemical or
public health
issues (for example) ecologists would be unlikely to study. In practice, there are considerable similarities between the work of ecologists and other environmental scientists. There is substantial overlap between ecology and environmental science with the disciplines of fisheries, forestry, and wildlife.
[
citation needed
]
History
[
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]
Ancient civilizations
[
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]
Historical concern for environmental issues is well documented in archives around the world.
[4]
Ancient civilizations were mainly concerned with what is now known as environmental science insofar as it related to agriculture and natural resources. Scholars believe that early interest in the environment began around 6000 BCE when ancient civilizations in Israel and Jordan collapsed due to deforestation.
[5]
As a result, in 2700 BCE the first legislation limiting deforestation was established in
Mesopotamia
.
[5]
Two hundred years later, in 2500 BCE, a community residing in the
Indus River Valley
observed the nearby river system in order to improve sanitation.
[5]
This involved manipulating the flow of water to account for public health. In the Western Hemisphere, numerous ancient Central American city-states collapsed around 1500 BCE due to soil erosion from intensive agriculture.
[5]
Those remaining from these civilizations took greater attention to the impact of farming practices on the sustainability of the land and its stable food production. Furthermore, in 1450 BCE the
Minoan civilization
on the Greek island of Crete declined due to deforestation and the resulting
environmental degradation
of natural resources.
[5]
Pliny the Elder
somewhat addressed the environmental concerns of ancient civilizations in the text
Naturalis Historia
, written between 77 and 79 ACE, which provided an overview of many related subsets of the discipline.
[6]
Although warfare and disease were of primary concern in ancient society, environmental issues played a crucial role in the survival and power of different civilizations. As more communities recognized the importance of the natural world to their long-term success, an interest in studying the environment came into existence.
[
citation needed
]
Beginnings of environmental science
[
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]
18th century
[
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]
In 1735, the concept of
binomial nomenclature
is introduced by
Carolus Linnaeus
as a way to classify all living organisms, influenced by earlier works of
Aristotle
.
[6]
His text,
Systema Naturae
, represents one of the earliest culminations of knowledge on the subject, providing a means to identify different species based partially on how they interact with their environment.
[
citation needed
]
19th century
[
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]
In the 1820s, scientists were studying the properties of gases, particularly those in the Earth's atmosphere and their interactions with heat from the Sun.
[7]
Later that century, studies suggested that the Earth had experienced an
Ice Age
and that warming of the Earth was partially due to what are now known as
greenhouse gases
(GHG).
[7]
The
greenhouse effect
was introduced, although climate science was not yet recognized as an important topic in environmental science due to minimal industrialization and lower rates of greenhouse gas emissions at the time.
[
citation needed
]
20th century
[
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]
In the 1900s, the discipline of environmental science as it is known today began to take shape. The century is marked by significant research, literature, and international cooperation in the field.
In the early 20th century, criticism from dissenters downplayed the effects of
global warming
.
[7]
At this time, few researchers were studying the dangers of
fossil fuels
. After a 1.3 degrees Celsius temperature anomaly was found in the Atlantic Ocean in the 1940s, however, scientists renewed their studies of gaseous heat trapping from the greenhouse effect (although only
carbon dioxide
and water vapor were known to be greenhouse gases then).
[7]
Nuclear development following the Second World War allowed environmental scientists to intensively study the effects of carbon and make advancements in the field.
[7]
Further knowledge from archaeological evidence brought to light the changes in climate over time, particularly
ice core sampling
.
[7]
Environmental science was brought to the forefront of society in 1962 when
Rachel Carson
published an influential piece of environmental literature,
Silent Spring
.
[8]
Carson's writing led the American public to pursue environmental safeguards, such as bans on harmful chemicals like the insecticide
DDT
.
[8]
Another important work,
The Tragedy of the Commons
, was published by
Garrett Hardin
in 1968 in response to accelerating natural degradation.
[6]
In 1969, environmental science once again became a household term after two striking disasters: Ohio's
Cuyahoga River
caught fire due to the amount of
pollution
in its waters and a
Santa Barbara oil spill
endangered thousands of marine animals, both receiving prolific media coverage.
[8]
Consequently, the United States passed an abundance of legislation, including the
Clean Water Act
and the
Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement
.
[8]
The following year, in 1970, the first ever
Earth Day
was celebrated worldwide and the United States
Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) was formed, legitimizing the study of environmental science in government policy.
[8]
In the next two years, the
United Nations
created the
United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP) in Stockholm, Sweden to address global
environmental degradation
.
[9]
Much of the interest in environmental science throughout the 1970s and the 1980s was characterized by major disasters and social movements. In 1978, hundreds of people were relocated from
Love Canal
, New York after
carcinogenic pollutants
were found to be buried underground near residential areas.
[8]
The next year, in 1979, the nuclear power plant on
Three Mile Island
in Pennsylvania suffered a meltdown and raised concerns about the dangers of
radioactive waste
and the safety of nuclear energy.
[8]
In response to landfills and toxic waste often disposed of near their homes, the official
Environmental Justice Movement
was started by a Black community in North Carolina in 1982.
[8]
Two years later, the toxic
methyl isocyanate
gas was released to the public from a power plant disaster in
Bhopal
, India, harming hundreds of thousands of people living near the disaster site, the effects of which are still felt today.
[8]
In a groundbreaking discovery in 1985, a British team of researchers studying Antarctica found evidence of a
hole in the ozone layer
, inspiring global agreements banning the use of
chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs), which were previously used in nearly all aerosols and refrigerants.
[7]
Notably, in 1986, the meltdown at the
Chernobyl
nuclear power plant in Ukraine released radioactive waste to the public, leading to international studies on the ramifications of environmental disasters.
[8]
Over the next couple of years, the
Brundtland Commission
(previously known as the World Commission on Environment and Development) published a report titled
Our Common Future
and the
Montreal Protocol
formed the
International Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC) as international communication focused on finding solutions for climate change and degradation.
[9]
In the late 1980s, the
Exxon Valdez
company was fined for spilling large quantities of
crude oil
off the coast of Alaska and the resulting cleanup, involving the work of environmental scientists.
[8]
After hundreds of oil wells were burned in combat in 1991, warfare between Iraq and Kuwait polluted the surrounding atmosphere just below the air quality threshold
environmental scientist
s believed was life-threatening.
[8]
21st century
[
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]
Many niche disciplines of environmental science have emerged over the years, although
climatology
is one of the most known topics. Since the 2000s, environmental scientists have focused on modeling the
effects of climate change
and encouraging global cooperation to minimize potential damages. In 2002, the
Society for the Environment
as well as the
Institute of Air Quality Management
were founded to share knowledge and develop solutions around the world.
[9]
Later, in 2008, the United Kingdom became the first country to pass legislation (the
Climate Change Act
) that aims to reduce carbon dioxide output to a specified threshold.
[9]
In 2016 the
Kyoto Protocol
became the
Paris Agreement
, which sets concrete goals to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and restricts Earth's rise in temperature to a 2 degrees Celsius maximum.
[9]
The agreement is one of the most expansive international efforts to limit the effects of global warming to date.
Most environmental disasters in this time period involve crude oil pollution or the effects of rising temperatures. In 2010,
BP
was responsible for the largest American oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico, known as the
Deepwater Horizon spill
, which killed a number of the company's workers and released large amounts of crude oil into the water.
[8]
Furthermore, throughout this century, much of the world has been ravaged by widespread wildfires and
water scarcity
, prompting regulations on the sustainable use of natural resources as determined by environmental scientists.
[8]
The 21st century is marked by significant technological advancements. New technology in environmental science has transformed how researchers gather information about various topics in the field. Research in engines,
fuel efficiency
, and decreasing emissions from vehicles since the times of the
Industrial Revolution
has reduced the amount of carbon and other pollutants into the atmosphere.
[10]
Furthermore, investment in researching and developing
clean energy
(i.e. wind, solar, hydroelectric, and geothermal power) has significantly increased in recent years, indicating the beginnings of the
divestment from fossil fuel use
.
[10]
Geographic information systems
(GIS) are used to observe sources of air or water pollution through satellites and digital imagery analysis.
[10]
This technology allows for advanced farming techniques like
precision agriculture
as well as monitoring water usage in order to set market prices.
[10]
In the field of water quality, developed strains of natural and manmade bacteria contribute to
bioremediation
, the treatment of
wastewaters
for future use.
[10]
This method is more eco-friendly and cheaper than manual cleanup or treatment of wastewaters.
[10]
Most notably, the expansion of computer technology has allowed for large data collection, advanced analysis, historical archives, public awareness of environmental issues, and international scientific communication.
[11]
The ability to crowdsource on the Internet, for example, represents the process of collectivizing knowledge from researchers around the world to create increased opportunity for scientific progress.
[11]
With
crowdsourcing
, data is released to the public for personal analyses which can later be shared as new information is found.
[11]
Another technological development,
blockchain
technology, monitors and regulates global fisheries.
[11]
By tracking the path of fish through global markets, environmental scientists can observe whether certain species are being overharvested to the point of extinction.
[11]
Additionally,
remote sensing
allows for the detection of features of the environment without physical intervention.
[11]
The resulting digital imagery is used to create increasingly accurate models of environmental processes,
climate change
, and much more. Advancements to remote sensing technology are particularly useful in locating the
nonpoint sources of pollution
and analyzing
ecosystem health
through image analysis across the
electromagnetic spectrum
. Lastly,
thermal imaging
technology is used in
wildlife management
to catch and discourage poachers and other illegal wildlife traffickers from killing endangered animals, proving useful for conservation efforts.
[11]
Artificial intelligence
has also been used to predict the movement of animal populations and protect the habitats of wildlife.
[11]
Components
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]
Atmospheric sciences
[
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]
Atmospheric sciences focus on the Earth's atmosphere, with an emphasis upon its interrelation to other systems. Atmospheric sciences can include studies of
meteorology
,
greenhouse gas
phenomena,
atmospheric dispersion modeling
of airborne contaminants,
[12]
[13]
sound propagation phenomena related to
noise pollution
, and even
light pollution
.
Taking the example of the
global warming
phenomena, physicists create
computer models
of atmospheric circulation and
infrared
radiation transmission, chemists examine the inventory of atmospheric chemicals and their reactions, biologists analyze the plant and animal contributions to
carbon dioxide
fluxes, and specialists such as
meteorologists
and
oceanographers
add additional breadth in understanding the
atmospheric dynamics
[
citation needed
]
.
Ecology
[
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]
As defined by the Ecological Society of America, "Ecology is the study of the relationships between living organisms, including humans, and their physical environment; it seeks to understand the vital connections between plants and animals and the world around them."
[14]
Ecologists might investigate the relationship between a population of organisms and some physical characteristic of their environment, such as concentration of a chemical; or they might investigate the interaction between two populations of different organisms through some symbiotic or competitive relationship. For example, an interdisciplinary analysis of an ecological system which is being impacted by one or more stressors might include several related environmental science fields. In an estuarine setting where a proposed industrial development could impact certain species by
water
and
air pollution
,
biologists
would describe the flora and fauna,
chemists
would analyze the transport of
water pollutants
to the marsh,
physicists
would calculate
air
pollution emissions and
geologists
would assist in understanding the marsh soils and bay muds.
[
citation needed
]
Environmental chemistry
[
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]
Environmental chemistry is the study of chemical alterations in the environment. Principal areas of study include
soil contamination
and water pollution. The topics of analysis include chemical degradation in the environment, multi-phase transport of chemicals (for example, evaporation of a
solvent
containing lake to yield solvent as an air pollutant), and chemical effects upon
biota
.
[
citation needed
]
As an example study, consider the case of a leaking solvent tank which has entered the habitat soil of an
endangered species
of amphibian. As a method to resolve or understand the extent of
soil contamination
and subsurface transport of solvent, a
computer model
would be implemented. Chemists would then characterize the
molecular bonding
of the solvent to the specific soil type, and biologists would study the impacts upon soil
arthropods
, plants, and ultimately pond-dwelling organisms that are the food of the endangered amphibian.
[
citation needed
]
Geosciences
[
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]
Geosciences include
environmental geology
,
environmental soil science
,
volcanic
phenomena and evolution of the Earth's crust. In some classification systems this can also include
hydrology
, including
oceanography
.
[
citation needed
]
As an example study, of soils
erosion
, calculations would be made of
surface runoff
by soil scientists. Fluvial geomorphologists would assist in examining
sediment transport
in overland flow. Physicists would contribute by assessing the changes in light transmission in the receiving waters. Biologists would analyze subsequent impacts to aquatic flora and fauna from increases in water turbidity.
[
citation needed
]
Regulations driving the studies
[
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]
In the United States the
National Environmental Policy Act
(NEPA) of 1969 set forth requirements for analysis of federal government actions (such as highway construction projects and land management decisions) in terms of specific environmental criteria.
[15]
Numerous state laws have echoed these mandates, applying the principles to local-scale actions. The upshot has been an explosion of documentation and study of environmental consequences before the fact of development actions.
[
citation needed
]
One can examine the specifics of environmental science by reading examples of
Environmental Impact Statements
prepared under NEPA such as:
Wastewater treatment expansion options discharging into the San Diego/
Tijuana
Estuary
,
Expansion of the
San Francisco International Airport
,
Development of the
Houston
, Metro Transportation system
,
Expansion of the metropolitan
Boston
MBTA transit system
, and
Construction of
Interstate 66
through
Arlington, Virginia
.
[
citation needed
]
In England and Wales the
Environment Agency
(EA),
[16]
formed in 1996, is a public body for protecting and improving the environment and enforces the regulations listed on the communities and local government site.
[17]
(formerly the office of the deputy prime minister). The agency was set up under the
Environment Act 1995
as an independent body and works closely with UK Government to enforce the regulations.
[
citation needed
]
See also
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]
References
[
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]
- ^
Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2008).
The Language of Mineralogy: John Walker, Chemistry and the Edinburgh Medical School 1750-1800
.
Ashgate Publishing
.
- ^
Environmental Science: Iowa State University. Environmental Sciences provides an integrated and interdisciplinary approach to understand and mitigate hazards arising from anthropogenic and natural activities by focusing on key areas of environmental chemistry, earth sciences, environmental engineering, atmospheric sciences, and sustainable systems.
http://www.ensci.iastate.edu
Archived
27 January 2020 at the
Wayback Machine
(Accessed 17 February 2010)
- ^
Carson, Rachel.
Silent Spring
(Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1962), Mariner Books, 2002,
ISBN
0-618-24906-0
- ^
Kovarik, Bill (9 September 2022).
"Environmental issues are part of history"
.
Environmental history
. Retrieved
2 October
2022
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
"Prehistoric"
.
Environmental history
. 20 July 2012
. Retrieved
3 October
2022
.
- ^
a
b
c
"Classics of Environmental Literature"
.
Environmental history
. 14 September 2014
. Retrieved
2 October
2022
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
Mason, Matthew (August 2014).
"History of the Study of Climate Change in Field of Environmental Science"
.
Environmental Science
. Retrieved
2 October
2022
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
k
l
m
n
"Milestones in EPA and Environmental History"
.
United States Environmental Protection Agency
. 20 May 2020
. Retrieved
2 October
2022
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
Karr, Katherine (January 2022).
"Celebrating 50 years of the IES: A brief history of environmental science"
.
The Institution of Environmental Sciences
. Retrieved
2 October
2022
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
Austin, David; Marauley, Molly K. (1 December 2001).
"Cutting Through Environmental Issues: Technology as a double-edged sword"
.
Brookings
. Retrieved
2 October
2022
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
Lambertini, Marco (23 August 2018).
"Technology can help us save the planet. But more than anything, we must learn to value nature"
.
World Economic Forum
. Retrieved
2 October
2022
.
- ^
Beychok, M.R. (2005).
Fundamentals Of Stack Gas Dispersion
(4th ed.). author-published.
ISBN
0-9644588-0-2
.
- ^
Turner, D.B. (1994).
Workbook of atmospheric dispersion estimates: an introduction to dispersion modeling
(2nd ed.).
CRC Press
.
ISBN
1-56670-023-X
.
- ^
"What is ecology?"
.
Ecological Society of America
. 2020
. Retrieved
20 May
2020
.
- ^
"A Citizen's Guide to the National Environmental Policy Act"
. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Council on Environmental Quality. 2007.
- ^
"Environment Agency"
.
GOV.UK
. Retrieved
12 May
2021
.
- ^
"Communities and Local Government: Environment"
. Ministry of communities & Local Government, UK. Archived from
the original
on 12 August 2007.
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