Japanese music genre
Enka
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Stylistic origins
| |
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Cultural origins
| 1950s, Japan
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Enka
(
演歌
)
is a Japanese music genre considered to resemble traditional Japanese music stylistically.
Modern
enka
, however, is a relatively recent musical form, which adopts a more traditional musical style in its vocalism than
ry?k?ka
music, popular during the
prewar
years.
[1]
Modern
enka
, as developed in the postwar era, is a form of
sentimental ballad music
. Some of the first modern
enka
singers were
Hachiro Kasuga
,
Michiya Mihashi
, and
Hideo Murata
.
[2]
The revival of
enka
in its modern form is said to date from 1969, when
Keiko Fuji
made her debut. The most famous male
enka
singers are
Shinichi Mori
and
Kiyoshi Hikawa
.
Etymology
[
edit
]
The term
enka
was first used to refer to political texts set to music which were sung and distributed by opposition activists belonging to the
Freedom and People's Rights Movement
[
clarification needed
]
during the
Meiji period
(1868?1912) as a means of bypassing government curbs on speeches of political dissent ? and in this sense the word is derived from "
en
zetsu no uta"
(
演?の歌
)
, meaning "speech song."
Another theory holds that modern
enka
means "
en
jiru uta"
(
演じる歌
)
, meaning "performance song."
[3]
[4]
The genre called
enka
is also said to be an expedient classification for record labels as well as
J-pop
. For example,
Harumi Miyako
, who has been usually considered as an
enka
singer, said "I don't think that I sing 'enka'" and "In fact, there was no such term as 'enka' when I debuted."
[5]
[fn 1]
Musical style
[
edit
]
Modern
enka'
s mainstream scale is called
Yonanuki Tan-Onkai
(
ヨナ?き短音階
)
or "Minor Scale without Four and Seven (
fa
and
te
)," and is a modified version of
Yonanuki Ch?-Onkai
(
ヨナ?き長音階
)
or "Major Scale without Four and Seven (
Fa
and
Si
)," which came from an older Japanese scale, the "
Ryo Scale
"
(
呂音階
,
Ryo Onkai
)
.
[6]
One of the earliest Japanese songs that was said to have partly used it is
Rentar? Taki
's "
K?j? no Tsuki
," which was called
sh?ka
(
唱歌
, "school song")
in the
Meiji period
.
[7]
[8]
The seventh-
scale degree
is not used in "K?j? no Tsuki", a song of
B minor
.
[8]
The music, based on the
pentatonic scale
, has some resemblance to
blues
.
[9]
Enka
lyrics are usually written similarly around the themes of love and loss, loneliness, enduring hardships, and persevering in the face of difficulties, even suicide or death. Although
enka
is a genre of
kay?kyoku
, it is considered to be more expressive and emotional, though there is no clear consensus on the matter.
[3]
[10]
Archetypal
enka
singers employ a style of
melisma
?where a single syllable of text is sung while moving between several different notes in succession?known as
kobushi
.
[9]
[11]
Kobushi
occurs when the
pitch
of the singer's voice fluctuates irregularly within one
scale degree
: This compares with
vibrato
, which vibrates in a regular cycle.
[12]
The
kobushi
technique is not limited to
enka
, as can be heard in the Italian song "
Santa Lucia
."
[12]
In the late 1930s and early '40s, the music of composer
Masao Koga
began to resemble Buddhist
shomyo
-chanting possibly because his
record label
asked him to produce music.
[13]
Although Koga became a composer whose work is considered seminal to the creation of the genre, present-day
enka
is different from Koga's primary music because the singing styles of many postwar singers were different from the
kobushi
of Koga's musical note.
[14]
Modern
enka
singer
Takeshi Kitayama
himself admitted in 2006, "I was even confused because [Koga's] musical note was different from that of an old singer."
[14]
[fn 2]
Enka
suggests a traditional, idealized, or romanticized aspect of Japanese culture and attitudes.
Enka
singers, predominantly women, usually perform in a
kimono
or in evening dress. Male
enka
performers tend to wear formal dress, or in some performances, traditional Japanese attire. Nods to traditional Japanese music are common in
enka
. The melodies of
enka
are fundamentally Western harmonies, and electronic instruments are used, such as synthesizers and electric lead guitar with plenty of distortion, but its musical instruments also include traditional Japanese instruments such as the
shakuhachi
and the
shamisen
.
[15]
History
[
edit
]
19th century?1920s:
S?shi
enka and violin enka
[
edit
]
The political songs called
enka
in the Meiji period (1868?1912) are also called
S?shi Enka
(
?士演歌
)
to distinguish it from modern
enka
. Street singers were called enka-shi
(
演歌師
)
. The first
enka
song is said to be "The Dynamite Stanzas"
(
ダイナマイト節
)
.
[
why?
]
[16]
The songs during this time include
Otojiro Kawakami
's "Oppekepe".
[
why?
]
[17]
In the
Taish? period
(1912?26),
enka-shi
began to incorporate the
violin
, thus their songs were called
violin enka.
An
enka-shi
of the period was Toshio Sakurai
(
?井敏雄
)
, who in turn taught
Haruo Oka
.
[18]
In present-day Japan, Road Traffic Law regulates the appearance of street performers. However, Japanese performers such as Utaji Fukuoka
(
福岡詩二
)
have still sung
enka
from the Taish? period.
[19]
When the
1995 earthquake
struck, Soul Flower Mononoke Summit, a musical project of the rock band
Soul Flower Union
, played
s?shi enka
to help buoy the spirits of disaster victims.
[20]
1920s?1940s: Era of
ry?k?ka
[
edit
]
In the early
Sh?wa period
in the late 1920s, record companies produced
ry?k?ka
in place of
enka-shi
.
[21]
Enka-shi
began to use
guitar
and were dubbed
nagashi
(
流し
)
.
[3]
Haruo Oka
debuted with the 1939 song "Kokky? no Haru"
(
?境の春
,
lit. "Spring at the Border"
)
on the Japanese record label
King Records
.
[22]
However, the term
enka
became uncommon in the postwar years.
[3]
Late 1940s?1954: The arrival of new singers
[
edit
]
As
jazz
became popular in early postwar Japan, Japanese singer
Hibari Misora
released her debut song "Kappa
boogie-woogie
" on
Nippon Columbia
in 1949 at the age of only 12. She went on to sing jazz songs throughout the 1950s and 1960s.
[23]
She later did many
enka
songs in the 60s and 70s.
In 1948,
Hachiro Kasuga
won King Records' first talent contest. He joined the record label the next year where
Haruo Oka
was his senior. His debut single "Akai Lamp no Sh? Ressha"
(
赤いランプの終列車
,
lit. "Last Train with Red Lamp"
)
was released in 1952. The
kabuki
-style song "Otomi-san"
(
お富さん
,
lit. "Miss Otomi"
)
was originally made for Oka, but was sung by Kasuga, and in 1954, "Otomi-san" became a very popular hit in Japan.
[24]
Kasuga took part in the
NHK
K?haku Uta Gassen
for the first time with "Otomi-san" that year.
[25]
The song's composer, Masanobu Tokuchi, was born on
Okinawa Island
and grew up in
Amami
and became an important figure for introducing the
Ryukyu Islands
' music into the Japanese mainstream.
[26]
1955?1959: Early history of modern
enka
[
edit
]
Although "Otomi-san" was popular,
Kasuga
himself was not completely satisfied with it and recorded the song "Wakare no Ippon-sugi"
(
別れの一本杉
,
lit. "Farewell One Cedar"
)
by
Toru Funamura
.
[2]
The song was released in 1955 and was later regarded as a true
enka
song.
[
why?
]
[27]
The song, ironically, was also influenced by
tango music
's rhythm because Funamura felt that tango seemed similar to
enka
in its local color.
[27]
"Wakare no Ippon-sugi" was later covered by singers as diverse as
Michiya Mihashi
,
Hideo Murata
,
Keiko Fuji
,
Hibari Misora
,
Sabur? Kitajima
,
Takashi Hosokawa
, and
Hiroshi Itsuki
.
[
when?
]
[28]
Kasuga was later called the first
enka
singer.
[
why?
]
[2]
Michiya Mihashi, who originally sang Japanese folk music (
min'y?
) and learned
tsugaru-jamisen
, released his debut single "Sake no Nigasa yo" as a recording singer in 1954.
[29]
Mihashi's "Onna Send? Uta" was a hit in 1955.
[29]
Funamura's friend Kimio Takano, the lyricist of "Wakare no Ippon-sugi", died in 1956 at the age of 26.
[27]
Hibari Misora's music turned to
enka
when she was no longer regarded as a
teen idol
.
[30]
Around the postwar period,
r?kyoku
(or
naniwa-bushi
), famous during the war, declined in popularity mainly because their speaking lengths were considered too long.
Enka
, on the other hand, which became popular around that time, was said to be a shortened version of
r?kyoku
because several
enka
singers such as Hideo Murata and
Haruo Minami
were originally
r?kyoku
singers and
enka
has many themes in common with the genre.
[31]
One notable
r?kyoku
singer who had an influence on
enka
was
Kumoemon Tochuken
, whose student's pupil was Murata.
[31]
Minami debuted on
Teichiku Records
in 1957 and Murata on Nippon Columbia in 1958. Murata covered the song "Jinsei Gekij?"
(
人生劇場
,
lit. "Drama of Life"
)
, composed by
Masao Koga
.
[14]
Haruo Minami was known for wearing a
kimono
, which was at the time considered an unusual style for a male singer.
[32]
1960s?1970s: Commercial success
[
edit
]
In the early 1960s,
rockabilly
influenced by
Elvis Presley
began to gain popularity.
Kyu Sakamoto
, who came from Japanese rockabilly, joined Japanese popular music.
[33]
However, many Japanese music critics complained about rockabilly, and
Hideo Murata
's 1961 "pure Japanese style"-like song "?sho," composed by Toru Funamura, became a million-selling single in Japan.
[34]
When Kyu Sakamoto took part in the
K?haku Uta Gassen
for the first time with the song "Ue o Muite Aruk?" (aka "
Sukiyaki
") in 1961, Hideo Murata also made his debut with the song "?sho" at the same show.
[35]
Young
enka
singer
Yukio Hashi
appeared in 1960,
Sabur? Kitajima
in 1962 and
Harumi Miyako
in 1964.
Sachiko Kobayashi
debuted with the 1964 single "Usotsuki Kamome"
(
ウソツキ?
,
lit. "Liar Seagull"
)
at the age of only 10. The most well-known and beloved performer of
enka
is
Hibari Misora
(1937–1989), known as the "Queen of
Enka
" and "Queen of Sh?wa" for the period in which she lived and was celebrated. Misora's song "Yawara," composed by Masao Koga, won the grand prix award at the 1965
Japan Record Award
.
[36]
Masaru Matsuyama also made his debut in 1965, but was not able to achieve commercial success and changed his stage name to
Hiroshi Itsuki
in 1971.
Mina Aoe
appeared with the single "K?kotsu no Blues"
(
恍惚のブル?ス
,
lit. "Ecstasy Blues"
)
in 1966, pioneering the "
enka
-
blues
" genre.
[37]
Shinichi Mori
debuted with the 1966 single "Onna no Tameiki"
(
女のためいき
,
lit. "Woman's Sigh"
)
. His 1969 song "Minatomachi Blues"
(
港町ブル?ス
,
lit. "Port Town Blues"
)
topped the Japanese
Oricon
single charts for five weeks and sold over one million copies.
[38]
Keiko Fuji
came out with the 1969 single "Shinjuku no Onna"
(
新宿の女
,
lit. "Woman in Shinjuku"
)
at the age of 18. The term
enka
which had not been used in the postwar era, was revived by her performance.
[3]
Keiko Fuji
's 1970 song "
Keiko no Yume wa Yoru Hiraku
" won the mass popularity award of the
12th Japan Record Awards
and the grand prix award of the first
Japan Music Awards
. That year, she also took part in the 21st
K?haku Uta Gassen
with the song. Her 1970 album
Shinjuku no Onna/'Enka no Hoshi' Fuji Keiko no Subete
(
新宿の女/"演歌の星" 藤圭子のすべて
,
Woman in Shinjuku/'Star of Enka' All of Keiko Fuji
)
established a record-breaking consecutive number-one record to top the
Oricon
charts for 20 "consecutive" weeks.
[39]
It is a record that still stands.
The best-selling
enka
after the Oricon charts began in 1968 is
Shiro Miya
and Pinkara Trio's 1972 "
Onna no Michi
." The song topped the Japanese Oricon single charts for 16 consecutive weeks and sold over 3.25 million copies, to become the second best-selling single in Japan behind "
Oyoge! Taiyaki-kun
."
Hiroshi Itsuki
's song "Yozora" won the grand prix award at the
15th Japan Record Awards
in 1973.
Shinichi Mori
released the single "Erimo Misaki" in 1974. Although the song was composed by non-
enka
musician
Takuro Yoshida
, "Erimo Misaki" won the grand prix at the
16th Japan Record Awards
that year.
Harumi Miyako
's song "
Kita no Yado kara
" also won the grand prix at the
18th Japan Record Awards
in 1976. New
enka
singers, who debuted in the '70s, include
Sayuri Ishikawa
and
Takashi Hosokawa
who were both
Michiya Mihashi
's pupils.
[29]
Masao Koga died in 1978, after a career of composing about 5,000 songs.
[14]
Toru Funamura became self-employed in 1978, beginning live performances and returning to the original position for his old friend Kimio Takano.
[27]
Keiko Fuji announced her retirement in 1979 and went to the
United States
.
[40]
1980s?1990s: Losing definition and decline
[
edit
]
Takashi Hosokawa
's song "Kita Sakaba" won the grand prix at the
24th Japan Record Awards
in 1982. He covered
Naomi Chiaki
's originally song "Yagiri no Watashi" next year. It was also won the grand prix at the
following Japan Record Awards
. The total sales of
Michiya Mihashi
's work surpassed 100 million records in 1983, making him the first artist to achieve that in Japan.
[29]
On June 11, 1986,
Sanae J?nouchi
, a member of
idol
group
Onyanko Club
, released the
enka
single "Ajisai Bashi," written by
Yasushi Akimoto
. The single debuted at No. 1 on the Oricon weekly single charts.
[41]
Ikuzo Yoshi
's 1986 single "Yukiguni" became the Oricon's 300th number-one single in 1987.
[42]
Other new
enka
singers around that time included
Fuyumi Sakamoto
and
Ayako Fuji
.
Hibari Misora
, at the age of 50, released the single "Midaregami" on December 10, 1987. "Midaregami" reached the No. 9 position on the Oricon weekly charts.
[43]
Yasushi Akimoto wrote the lyrics of her 1989 single "
Kawa no Nagare no Y? ni
". However, she died in 1989 and the
enka
range expanded into the genre
kay?kyoku
while the genre
kay?kyoku
was vanishing.
[10]
Hachiro Kasuga
died in 1991. As
enka
's traditional themes were no longer appreciated among younger Japanese and Western-style
J-pop
music became more popular,
enka
sales declined. However, the genre still had many adherents. Besides TV programs,
enka
could be heard in many restaurants, drinking establishments,
karaoke
bars and cafes. On the other hand, "bright"
enka
singer
Yoshimi Tendo
, who was ignored when the "dark"
enka
songs like Keiko Fuji's song "Keiko no Yume wa Yoru Hiraku" were popular, took part in the
K?haku Uta Gassen
for the first time in 1993.
[44]
Other new
enka
singers such as Toshimi Tagawa and Fuyumi Sakamoto were also appearing on TV
enka
programs which kept
enka
alive. Taiwanese diva
Teresa Teng
was also singing in Japanese and covering
enka
songs from the 70s until she died in 1995 at the age of 42.
2000s: Musical hybridity
[
edit
]
Enka
's popularity among younger Japanese, however, increased in the first decade of the 21st century.
Kiyoshi Hikawa
debuted on
Nippon Columbia
in 2000 with the single "Hakone Hachiri no Hanjir?," which became a smash hit. The early solo releases of then-
Morning Musume
member
Yuko Nakazawa
were also
enka
. In contrast,
Nana Mizuki
, who learned
enka
as a child, became a voice actress and also appeared as a singer on
King Records
in 2000.
[45]
On August 25, 2004,
Johnny & Associates
' group
Kanjani Eight
debuted with the Kansai-limited release of "Naniwa Iroha Bushi" under the
Teichiku Records
. The song was based on "
Kawachi ondo
" and featured
rap
. The song was a hit and reached No. 8 on the Oricon weekly singles chart on the strength of Kansai sales alone. Then, on September 22, 2004, "Naniwa Iroha Bushi" was released nationwide and re-debuted on the Oricon weekly singles charts at the No. 1 spot, becoming the first
enka
single to reach the No. 1 in seventeen years since
Yujiro Ishihara
's 1987 single "Kita no Tabibito" according to Oricon.
Hikawa also released the single "Hatsukoi Ressha" on February 9, 2005, which debuted at the No. 1 position on the Oricon charts, Hikawa's first number-one single on the Oricon weekly charts. Older female singer
Junko Akimoto
also debuted on King Records, releasing her first single "Madison-gun no Koi" on July 21, 2005. However,
?
her musical style was '70s
kay?kyoku
style.
[46]
Veteran
enka
singer
Hiroshi Itsuki
, at 58, released the single "Takasebune" on April 19, 2006, becoming his first Top 10 single in 22 years since 1984's "Nagaragawa Enka." It debuted at the number-nine position on the Oricon charts.
[47]
Hikawa's song "Ikken" won the grand prix at the
48th Japan Record Awards
on December 30, 2006. Kanjani Eight was transferred to the pop/rock record label Imperial Records, the sub-label of
Teichiku Records
in 2007. In the same year, 80s superstar
Akina Nakamori
paid her respect to
enka
music by releasing an album?full of light
enka
songs.
Junko Akimoto released the single "Ai no Mama de…" on January 23, 2008, reaching the top of the Oricon weekly single charts in January 2009, making her, at the age of 61, the oldest solo singer to top the charts.
[48]
That same year, Hikawa released two consecutive number-one singles ? "Ry?kyoku Ichidai" and "Tokimeki no Rumba" ? on the Oricon weekly charts.
Fuyumi Sakamoto
's 2009 song "Asia no Kaizoku", composed by
Ayumi Nakamura
, was an
enka
song featuring
rock music
.
[49]
Sakamoto said, "If Ayumi sings the song, it's a rock song. If I sing the song, however, it's an
enka
song."
[49]
[fn 3]
2010s
[
edit
]
On January 1, 2010, 73-year-old
Sabur? Kitajima
released the single "F?fu Issh?"
(
夫婦一生
,
lit. "Couple in a Lifetime"
)
, emerging at No. 10 on the Oricon weekly charts, making him the first solo artist to reach the Top 10 in his 70s.
[50]
After
Fuyumi Sakamoto
appeared on
Masahiro Nakai
's TV program
Nakai Masahiro no Kiny?bi no Sumatachi e
on March 19, 2010, her double A-side single "Mata Kimi ni Koi Shiteru/Asia no Kaizoku" reached the Top 10 for the first time, ranked at No. 9 on the Oricon charts. The single became her first Top 10 single in 21 years since "Otoko no J?wa," which had ranked in the Top 10 on the Oricon charts in 1989.
[51]
International popularity
[
edit
]
Enka
has had a strong influence on music in Taiwan, which was once a
Japanese colony
.
[52]
The first non-Japanese singer of
enka
was
Sarbjit Singh Chadha
from
India
. His
enka
album was released in 1975 and became a success in Japan, selling 150,000 copies. He went back to India a few years later, but returned to Japan in 2008.
[53]
In 2002,
Yolanda Tasico
became the first
Filipino
enka
singer, going to
Japan
with her singles "Shiawase ni Nar?," "Nagai Aida," and many others.
In the United States, while
enka
remains popular among a section of the (typically older)
Japanese-American
population,
enka
has many fans among non-Japanese.
[
citation needed
]
There are some
enka
orchestras and performers active in the country, such as the San Jose Chidori Band, which occasionally performs at
O-Bon
festivals in the summer.
See also
[
edit
]
- ^
Original text: "わたし、自分が演歌をうたってるとは思ってませんから。"
"じっさい、あたしがデビュ?したころは、特に演歌なんて言い方はしなかったですよ。"
- ^
Original text: "昔の人が歌った音資料と?譜が違って?惑いもしました"
- ^
Original text: "この曲もあゆみさんが歌ったらロックなのに、私が歌ったら、演歌になる"
References
[
edit
]
- ^
Christine Reiko Yano.
Tears of Longing: Nostalgia and the Nation in Japanese Popular Song
Archived
2020-05-15 at the
Wayback Machine
.
Google Books
. via Harvard Univ Asia Center. 2003. 42.
ISBN
978-0-674-01276-9
- ^
a
b
c
"The day that enka singer Hachiro Kasuga died"
(in Japanese).
Nippon Television
. 2008-10-22. Archived from
the original
on 2016-03-04
. Retrieved
2009-02-09
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
"Music and Contemporary Society"
(in Japanese). JASRAC contribution course in Keio University. 2002-10-21. Archived from
the original
on January 28, 2005
. Retrieved
2009-01-18
.
- ^
Martin, Alex, "
'Enka' still strikes nostalgic nerve
Archived
2011-06-06 at the
Wayback Machine
",
Japan Times
, 18 November 2008, p. 3.
- ^
世界は演歌に?ちている
(in Japanese). Masayuki Tamaki Official Website. 2005-12-12.
Archived
from the original on 2008-09-05
. Retrieved
2009-02-01
.
- ^
"Yonanuki Onkai"
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Archived
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. Retrieved
2009-02-23
.
- ^
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(in Japanese).
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.
- ^
a
b
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(in Japanese).
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Archived
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a
b
"Enka still strikes nostalgic nerve"
. The Japan Times. 2008-11-18.
Archived
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. Retrieved
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.
- ^
a
b
第6部?演歌巡?<2>前川? べたつかぬ距離感で歌う
(in Japanese).
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. Retrieved
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.
- ^
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on 2012-07-07
. Retrieved
2010-04-23
.
- ^
a
b
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(in Japanese). R25.jp. 2008-05-23. Archived from
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on 2009-02-02
. Retrieved
2009-04-11
.
- ^
"Kanagawa.HTML"
古賀政男生誕百年「はなまつりコンサ?ト」
(in Japanese). Yumi Aikawa Official Website.
Archived
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Further reading
[
edit
]
Yano, Christine R.
Tears of Longing: Nostalgia and the Nation in Japanese Popular Song.
Harvard University Asia Center: 2003.
External links
[
edit
]