English astronomer (1656?1742)
Edmond
[2]
(or
Edmund
)
[3]
Halley
FRS
(
;
[4]
[5]
8 November [
O.S.
29 October] 1656 ? 25 January 1742 [
O.S.
14 January 1741])
[6]
[7]
was an English
astronomer
,
mathematician
and
physicist
. He was the second
Astronomer Royal
in Britain, succeeding
John Flamsteed
in 1720.
From an observatory he constructed on
Saint Helena
in 1676?77, Halley catalogued the
southern celestial hemisphere
and recorded a
transit of Mercury
across the Sun. He realised that a similar
transit of Venus
could be used to determine the distances between Earth, Venus, and the Sun. Upon his return to England, he was made a
fellow of the Royal Society
, and with the help of King
Charles II
, was granted a master's degree from
Oxford
.
Halley encouraged and helped fund the publication of
Isaac Newton
's influential
Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica
(1687). From observations Halley made in September 1682, he used
Newton's law of universal gravitation
to compute the periodicity of
Halley's Comet
in his 1705
Synopsis of the Astronomy of Comets
.
[a]
It was named after him upon its predicted return in 1758, which he did not live to see.
Beginning in 1698, Halley made sailing expeditions and made observations on the conditions of terrestrial
magnetism
. In 1718, he discovered the
proper motion
of the
"fixed" stars
.
Early life
[
edit
]
Halley was born in
Haggerston
in
Middlesex
. His father, Edmond Halley Sr., came from a
Derbyshire
family and was a wealthy soap-maker in London. As a child, Halley was very interested in mathematics. He studied at
St Paul's School
,
[9]
where he developed his initial interest in astronomy, and was elected captain of the school in 1671.
[10]
The following year, Halley's mother, Anne (probably
nee
Robinson) died.
[1]
In July 1673,
[10]
he began studying at
The Queen's College, Oxford
.
[9]
Halley took a twenty-four-foot (7.3 m) long telescope with him, apparently paid for by his father.
[11]
While still an undergraduate, Halley published papers on the
Solar System
and
sunspots
.
[12]
In March 1675, he wrote to
John Flamsteed
, the
Astronomer Royal
(England's first), telling him that the leading published tables on the positions of
Jupiter
and
Saturn
were erroneous, as were some of
Tycho Brahe
's star positions.
[13]
Career
[
edit
]
Publications and inventions
[
edit
]
In 1676, Flamsteed helped Halley publish his first paper, titled "A Direct and Geometrical Method of Finding the Aphelia, Eccentricities, and Proportions of the Primary Planets, Without Supposing Equality in Angular Motion", about planetary
orbits
, in
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
.
[13]
Influenced by Flamsteed's project to compile a catalogue of stars of the
northern celestial hemisphere
, Halley proposed to do the same for the
southern sky
,
[14]
dropping out of school to do so. He chose the south Atlantic island of
Saint Helena
(west of Africa), from which he would be able to observe not only the southern stars, but also some of the northern stars with which to cross-reference them.
[15]
King
Charles II
supported his endeavour.
[16]
Halley sailed to the island in late 1676, then set up an observatory with a large
sextant
with telescopic sights. Over a year, he made observations with which he would produce the first telescopic catalogue of the southern sky,
[17]
and observed a
transit of Mercury
across the Sun. Focusing on this latter observation, Halley realised that observing the
solar parallax
of a planet?more ideally using the
transit of Venus
, which would not occur within his lifetime?could be used to
trigonometrically
determine the distances between Earth, Venus, and the Sun.
[18]
[b]
Halley returned to England in May 1678, and used his data to produce a
map
of the southern stars.
[20]
Oxford would not allow Halley to return because he had violated his residency requirements when he left for Saint Helena. He appealed to Charles II, who signed a letter requesting that Halley be unconditionally awarded his
Master of Arts
degree, which the college granted on 3 December 1678.
[21]
Just a few days before,
[22]
Halley had been elected as a
fellow of the Royal Society
, at the age of 22.
[23]
In 1679, he published
Catalogus Stellarum Australium
('A catalogue of the stars of the South'), which includes his map and descriptions of 341 stars.
[20]
[c]
Robert Hooke
presented the catalogue to the Royal Society.
[26]
In mid-1679, Halley went to Danzig (
Gda?sk
) on behalf of the Society to help resolve a dispute: because astronomer
Johannes Hevelius
' observing instruments were not equipped with
telescopic sights
, Flamsteed and Hooke had questioned the accuracy of his observations; Halley stayed with Hevelius and checked his observations, finding that they were quite precise.
[25]
By 1681,
Giovanni Domenico Cassini
had told Halley of his theory that comets were objects in orbit.
[27]
In September 1682, Halley carried out a series of observations of what became known as
Halley's Comet
; his name became associated with it because of his work on its orbit and predicting its return in 1758
[28]
(which he did not live to see). In early 1686, Halley was elected to the Royal Society's new position of secretary, requiring him to give up his fellowship and manage correspondence and meetings, as well as edit the
Philosophical Transactions
.
[29]
[d]
Also in 1686, Halley published the second part of the results from his Helenian expedition, being a paper and chart on
trade winds
and
monsoons
. The symbols he used to represent trailing winds still exist in most modern day weather chart representations. In this article he identified solar heating as the cause of
atmospheric
motions. He also established the relationship between
barometric pressure
and height above sea level. His charts were an important contribution to the emerging field of
information visualisation
.
[30]
Halley spent most of his time on lunar observations, but was also interested in the problems of
gravity
. One problem that attracted his attention was the proof of
Kepler's laws of planetary motion
. In August 1684, he went to
Cambridge
to discuss this with
Isaac Newton
, much as John Flamsteed had done four years earlier, only to find that Newton had solved the problem, at the instigation of Flamsteed with regard to the orbit of comet
Kirch
, without publishing the solution. Halley asked to see the calculations and was told by Newton that he could not find them, but promised to redo them and send them on later, which he eventually did, in a short treatise titled
On the motion of bodies in an orbit
. Halley recognised the importance of the work and returned to Cambridge to arrange its publication with Newton, who instead went on to expand it into his
Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica
published at Halley's expense in 1687.
[31]
Halley's first calculations with comets were thereby for the orbit of comet Kirch, based on Flamsteed's observations in 1680?1681.
[e]
Although he was to accurately calculate the orbit of the comet of 1682, he was inaccurate in his calculations of the orbit of comet Kirch. They indicated a periodicity of 575 years, thus appearing in the years 531 and 1106, and presumably heralding
the death
of
Julius Caesar
in a like fashion in 45 BC. It is now known to have an orbital period of circa 10,000 years.
In 1691, Halley built a
diving bell
, a device in which the atmosphere was replenished by way of weighted barrels of air sent down from the surface.
[33]
In a demonstration, Halley and five companions dived to 60 feet (18 m) in the
River Thames
, and remained there for over an hour and a half. Halley's bell was of little use for practical salvage work, as it was very heavy, but he made improvements to it over time, later extending his underwater exposure time to over 4 hours.
[34]
Halley suffered one of the earliest recorded cases of middle ear
barotrauma
.
[33]
That same year, at a meeting of the Royal Society, Halley introduced a rudimentary working model of a magnetic
compass
using a liquid-filled housing to damp the swing and wobble of the magnetised needle.
[35]
In 1691, Halley sought the post of
Savilian Professor of Astronomy
at Oxford. While a candidate for the position, Halley faced the animosity of the Astronomer Royal, John Flamsteed, and the
Anglican Church
questioned his religious views,
[f]
largely on the grounds that he had doubted the
Earth's age
as given in the
Bible
.
[36]
[g]
After Flamsteed wrote to Newton to rally support against Halley, Newton wrote back in hopes of reconciliation, but was unsuccessful.
[36]
Halley's candidacy was opposed by both the
Archbishop of Canterbury
,
John Tillotson
, and
Bishop Stillingfleet
, and the post went instead to
David Gregory
, who had Newton's support.
[39]
In 1692, Halley put forth the idea of a
hollow Earth
consisting of a shell about 500 miles (800 km) thick, two inner concentric shells and an innermost core.
[40]
He suggested that atmospheres separated these shells, and that each shell had its own
magnetic poles
, with each sphere rotating at a different speed. Halley proposed this scheme to explain anomalous compass readings. He envisaged each inner region as having an
atmosphere
and being
luminous
(and possibly inhabited), and speculated that escaping gas caused the
aurora borealis
.
[41]
He suggested, "Auroral rays are due to particles, which are affected by the magnetic field, the rays parallel to Earth's magnetic field."
[42]
In 1693 Halley published an article on
life annuities
, which featured an analysis of age-at-death on the basis of the
Breslau
statistics
Caspar Neumann
had been able to provide. This article allowed the British government to sell life annuities at an appropriate price based on the age of the purchaser. Halley's work strongly influenced the development of
actuarial science
. The construction of the life-table for Breslau, which followed more primitive work by
John Graunt
, is now seen as a major event in the history of
demography
.
The Royal Society censured Halley for suggesting in 1694 that the story of
Noah's flood
might be an account of a cometary impact.
[43]
[
failed verification
?
see discussion
]
A similar theory
was independently suggested three centuries later, but is generally rejected by geologists.
[44]
In 1696, Newton was appointed as
warden of the Royal Mint
and nominated Halley as deputy comptroller of the Chester mint. Halley spent two years supervising coin production. While there, he caught two clerks pilfering precious metals. He and the local warden spoke out about the scheme, unaware that the local master of the mint was profiting from it.
[45]
In 1698, the Czar of Russia (later known as
Peter the Great
) was on a visit to England, and hoped Newton would be available to entertain him. Newton sent Halley in his place. He and the Czar bonded over science and brandy. According to one disputed account, when both of them were drunk one night, Halley jovially pushed the Czar around
Deptford
in a wheelbarrow.
[46]
Exploration years
[
edit
]
In 1698, at the behest of King
William III
, Halley was given command of the
Paramour
, a 52 feet (16 m)
pink
, so that he could carry out investigations in the South Atlantic into the laws governing the
variation of the compass
, as well as to refine the coordinates of the
English colonies in the Americas
.
[47]
On 19 August 1698, he took command of the ship and, in November 1698, sailed on what was the first purely scientific voyage by an English naval vessel. Unfortunately problems of
insubordination
arose over questions of Halley's competence to command a vessel. Halley returned the ship to England to proceed against officers in July 1699. The result was a mild rebuke for his men, and dissatisfaction for Halley, who felt the court had been too lenient.
[48]
Halley thereafter received a temporary commission as a captain in the
Royal Navy
, recommissioned the
Paramour
on 24 August 1699 and sailed again in September 1699 to make extensive observations on the conditions of terrestrial
magnetism
. This task he accomplished in a second Atlantic voyage which lasted until 6 September 1700, and extended from 52 degrees north to 52 degrees south. The results were published in
General Chart of the Variation of the Compass
(1701).
[9]
This was the first such chart to be published and the first on which
isogonic
, or Halleyan, lines appeared.
[12]
[49]
The use of such lines inspired later ideas such as those of isotherms by
Alexander von Humboldt
in his maps.
[50]
In 1701, Halley made a third and final voyage on the
Paramour
to study the tides of the
English Channel
.
[51]
In 1702, he was dispatched by Queen
Anne
on diplomatic missions to other European leaders.
[51]
The preface to
Awnsham and John Churchill
's collection of voyages and travels (1704), supposedly written by John Locke or by Halley, valourised expeditions such as these as part of a grand expansion of European knowledge of the world:
What was cosmography before these discoveries, but an imperfect fragment of a science, scarce deserving so good a name? When all the known world was only Europe, a small part of Africk, and the lesser portion of Asia; so that of this terraqueous globe not one sixth part had ever been seen or heard of. Nay so great was the ignorance of man in this particular, that learned persons made a doubt of its being round; others no less knowing imagin'd all they were not acquainted with, desart and uninhabitable. But now geography and hydrography have receiv'd some perfection by the pains of so many mariners and travelers, who to evince the rotundity of the earth and water, have sail’d and travell'd round it, as has been here made appear; to show there is no part uninhabitable, unless the frozen polar regions, have visited all other countries, tho never so remote, which they have found well peopl'd, and most of them rich and delightful….
Astronomy has receiv'd the addition of many constellations never seen before. Natural and moral history is embelish'd with the most beneficial increase of so many thousands of plants it had never before receiv'd, so many drugs and spices, such variety of beasts, birds and fishes, such rarities in minerals, mountains and waters, such unaccountable diversity of climates and men, and in them of complexions, tempers, habits, manners, politicks, and religions…. To conclude, the empire of Europe is now extended to the utmost bounds of the earth, where several of its nations have conquests and colonies. These and many more are the advantages drawn from the labours of those, who expose themselves to the dangers of the vast ocean, and of unknown nations; which those who sit still at home abundantly reap in every kind: and the relation of one traveler is an incentive to stir up another to imitate him, whilst the rest of mankind, in their accounts without stirring a foot, compass the earth and seas, visit all countries, and converse with all nations.
[52]
Life as an academic
[
edit
]
In November 1703, Halley was appointed
Savilian Professor of Geometry
at the University of Oxford, his theological enemies,
John Tillotson
and
Bishop Stillingfleet
having died. In 1705, applying
historical astronomy
methods, he published the paper
Astronomiae cometicae synopsis
(
A Synopsis of the Astronomy of Comets
); in this, he stated his belief that the comet sightings of 1456, 1531, 1607, and 1682 were of the same comet, and that it would return in 1758.
[53]
[a]
Halley did not live to witness the comet's return, but when it did, the comet became generally known as Halley's Comet.
By 1706 Halley had learned
Arabic
and completed the translation started by
Edward Bernard
[55]
of Books V?VII of
Apollonius
's
Conics
from copies found at
Leiden
and the
Bodleian Library
at Oxford. He also completed a new translation of the first four books from the original Greek that had been started by the late
David Gregory
. He published these along with his own reconstruction of Book VIII
[56]
in the first complete Latin edition in 1710. The same year, he received an honorary degree of doctor of laws from Oxford.
[9]
In 1716, Halley suggested a high-precision measurement of the distance between the Earth and the Sun by timing the
transit of Venus
. In doing so, he was following the method described by
James Gregory
in
Optica Promota
(in which the design of the
Gregorian telescope
is also described). It is reasonable to assume Halley possessed and had read this book given that the Gregorian design was the principal telescope design used in astronomy in Halley's day.
[57]
It is not to Halley's credit that he failed to acknowledge Gregory's priority in this matter. In 1717?18 he discovered the
proper motion
of the "fixed" stars (publishing this in 1718)
[58]
by comparing his
astrometric
measurements with those given in Ptolemy's
Almagest
.
Arcturus
and
Sirius
were two noted to have moved significantly, the latter having progressed 30 arc minutes (about the diameter of the moon) southwards in 1800 years.
[59]
In 1720, together with his friend the
antiquarian
William Stukeley
, Halley participated in the first attempt to scientifically date
Stonehenge
. Assuming that the monument had been laid out using a magnetic compass, Stukeley and Halley attempted to calculate the perceived deviation introducing corrections from existing magnetic records, and suggested three dates (460 BC, AD 220 and AD 920), the earliest being the one accepted. These dates were wrong by thousands of years, but the idea that scientific methods could be used to date ancient monuments was revolutionary in its day.
[60]
Halley succeeded John Flamsteed in 1720 as Astronomer Royal, a position Halley held until his death in 1742 at the age of 85.
[14]
He was buried in the graveyard of the old church of St Margaret's, Lee (since rebuilt), at
Lee
Terrace,
Blackheath
.
[61]
He was interred in the same vault as the Astronomer Royal
John Pond
; the unmarked grave of the Astronomer Royal
Nathaniel Bliss
is nearby.
[62]
His original
tombstone
was transferred by the
Admiralty
when the original Lee church was demolished and rebuilt ? it can be seen today on the southern wall of the
Camera Obscura
at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. His marked grave can be seen at St Margaret's Church, Lee Terrace.
[63]
[64]
Despite the persistent misconception that Halley received a
knighthood
, it is not the case. The idea can be tracked back to American astronomical texts such as
William Augustus Norton
's 1839
An Elementary Treatise on Astronomy
, possibly due to Halley's royal occupations and connections to
Sir Isaac Newton
.
[65]
Personal life
[
edit
]
Halley married Mary Tooke in 1682 and settled in
Islington
. The couple had three children.
[1]
Named after Edmond Halley
[
edit
]
- Halley's Comet
(orbital period (approximately) 75 years)
- Halley (lunar crater)
- Halley (Martian crater)
- Halley Research Station
, Antarctica
- Halley's method
, for the numerical solution of equations
- Halley Street, in
Blackburn, Victoria
, Australia
- Edmund Halley Road,
Oxford Science Park
, Oxford, OX4 4DQ UK
- Edmund Halley Drive,
Reston, Virginia
, United States
- Edmund Halley Way,
Greenwich Peninsula
, London
- Halley's Mount, Saint Helena (680m high)
- Halley Drive,
Hackensack
, New Jersey, intersects with Comet Way on the campus of
Hackensack High School
, home of the Comets
- Rue Edmund Halley, Avignon, France
- The Halley Academy
, a school in
London
, England
- Halley House School, Hackney London (2015)
- Halley Gardens, Blackheath, London.
Pronunciation and spelling
[
edit
]
There are three pronunciations of the surname
Halley
. These are
,
, and
.
As a personal surname, the most common pronunciation in the 21st century, both in Great Britain
[4]
and in the United States,
[5]
is
(rhymes with "valley"). This is the personal pronunciation used by most Halleys living in London today.
[66]
This is useful guidance but does not, of course, tell us how the name should be pronounced in the context of the astronomer or the comet.
The alternative
is much more common in the latter context than it is when used as a modern surname.
Colin Ronan
, one of Halley's biographers, preferred
. Contemporary accounts spell his name
Hailey, Hayley, Haley, Haly, Halley, Hawley
and
Hawly
, and presumably pronunciations varied similarly.
[67]
As for his given name, although the spelling "Edmund" is quite common, "Edmond" is what Halley himself used, according to a 1902 article,
[2]
though a 2007
International Comet Quarterly
article disputes this, commenting that in his published works, he used "Edmund" 22 times and "Edmond" only 3 times,
[68]
with several other variations used as well, such as the Latinised "Edmundus". Much of the debate stems from the fact that, in Halley's own time, English spelling conventions were not yet standardised, and so he himself used multiple spellings.
[3]
In popular media
[
edit
]
See also
[
edit
]
Notes
[
edit
]
- ^
a
b
This was perhaps the first astronomical mystery solved using Newton's laws by a scientist other than Newton.
[54]
- ^
He wrote as late as 1716 in hopes of a future expedition to make these observations.
[19]
- ^
This contribution caused Flamsteed to nickname Halley "the southern Tycho".
Tycho had catalogued the stars observed by
Johannes Hevelius
.
[25]
- ^
For his payment, he was given 75 unsold copies of the Society's unsuccessful book
The History of Fish
, which it had depleted its funds on.
[29]
- ^
Halley asked Newton to obtain Flamsteed's observations for him, as his own relationship with the older astronomer had deteriorated.
[32]
- ^
"To what extent Halley's failure was due the animosity of John Flamsteed or to his stout defence [
sic
] of his religious belief that not every iota of scripture was necessarily divinely inspired is still a matter of some argument. All Oxford appointees had to assent to the Articles of Religion and be approved by the
Church of England
. Halley's religious views could not have been too outlandish because the University was happy to grant him another chair 12 years later. ... Halley held liberal religious views and was very outspoken. He believed in having a reverent but questioning attitude towards the eternal problems and had little sympathy for those who unquestioningly accepted dogma. He was certainly not an atheist."
Hughes 1985
, pp. 198, 201.
- ^
Halley had noticed that observable geological processes take much longer than implied by the
Genesis flood narrative
. In attempt to
explain
the biblical account, Halley had theorized that the gravity of a passing comet could have suddenly raised the oceans in a certain area.
[37]
Following his failure to obtain the professorship, he investigated ocean
salinity
as an indicator of the Earth's age, since salt is carried to the ocean by rivers. He estimated the Earth to be over 100 million years old.
[38]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
a
b
c
Cook, Alan
(2012) [2004]. "Halley, Edmond".
Oxford Dictionary of National Biography
(online ed.). Oxford University Press.
doi
:
10.1093/ref:odnb/12011
.
(Subscription or
UK public library membership
required.)
- ^
a
b
The Times
(London)
Notes and Queries
No. 254, 8 November 1902 p.36
- ^
a
b
Hughes, David W.; Green, Daniel W. E. (January 2007).
"Halley's First Name: Edmond or Edmund"
(PDF)
.
International Comet Quarterly
.
29
.
Harvard University
: 14.
Bibcode
:
2007ICQ....29....7H
.
Might we suggest... simply recogniz[ing] both forms, noting that?in the days when Halley lived?there was no rigid
'correct' spelling
, and that this particular astronomer seemed to prefer the 'u' over the 'o' in his published works.
- ^
a
b
Jones, Daniel
;
Gimson, Alfred C.
(1977) [1917].
Everyman's English Pronunciation Dictionary
. Everyman's Reference Library (14 ed.). London: J. M. Dent & Sons.
ISBN
0-460-03029-9
.
- ^
a
b
Kenyon, John S.
; Knott, Thomas A. (1953).
A Pronouncing Dictionary of American English
. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster Inc.
ISBN
0-87779-047-7
.
- ^
The source of the dates of birth and death is a biography of Edmond Halley written shortly after his death: Biographia Britannica, vol. 4, 1757, pp. 2494?2520. On his tombstone at Lee near Greenwich his year of birth and his year of death were inscribed as follows: Natus est A.C. MDCLVI. Mortuus est A.C. MDCCXLI. Before 1752 the Julian calendar was used in England. Also, the year began on 25 March.
- ^
"Halley, Edmond"
.
astro.uni-bonn.de
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
Clerke, Agnes Mary
(1911).
"Halley, Edmund"
. In
Chisholm, Hugh
(ed.).
Encyclopædia Britannica
. Vol. 12 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 856.
- ^
a
b
Sagan & Druyan 1997
, p. 40.
- ^
Sagan & Druyan 1997
, pp. 40?41.
- ^
a
b
Cook, Alan
(1998).
Edmond Halley: Charting the Heavens and the Seas
. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 54?59, 282.
ISBN
0198500319
.
- ^
a
b
Sagan & Druyan 1997
, p. 41.
- ^
a
b
BBC.
"Edmond Halley (1656?1742)"
. Retrieved
28 March
2017
.
- ^
Sagan & Druyan 1997
, p. 42.
- ^
Cook, Alan
(2003).
"Edmond Halley and Visual Representation in Natural Philosophy"
. In Lefevre, Wolfgang; Renn, Jurgen; Schoepflin, Urs (eds.).
The Power of Images in Early Modern Science
. Basel: Birkhauser. pp. 251?262.
doi
:
10.1007/978-3-0348-8099-2_13
.
ISBN
978-3-0348-8099-2
.
- ^
Ridpath, Ian
.
"Edmond Halley's southern star catalogue"
.
Star Tales
. Retrieved
22 February
2022
.
- ^
Jeremiah Horrocks, William Crabtree, and the Lancashire observations of the transit of Venus of 1639, Allan Chapman 2004 Cambridge University Press
doi
:
10.1017/S1743921305001225
- ^
Sagan & Druyan 1997
, p. 60.
- ^
a
b
Kanas, Nick (2012).
Star Maps: History, Artistry, and Cartography
(2nd ed.). Chichester, U.K.: Springer. p. 123.
ISBN
978-1-4614-0917-5
.
- ^
Sagan & Druyan 1997
, p. 45.
- ^
O'Connor, J. J.; Robertson, E. F. (January 2000).
"Edmond Halley - Biography"
.
Maths History
.
Archived
from the original on 10 August 2020
. Retrieved
28 June
2021
.
- ^
Sharp, Tim (11 December 2018).
"Edmond Halley: An Extraordinary Scientist and the Second Astronomer Royal"
.
Space.com
.
Archived
from the original on 14 February 2014
. Retrieved
28 June
2021
.
- ^
a
b
Jones, Harold Spencer
(1957).
"Halley as an Astronomer"
.
Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London
.
12
(2): 175?192.
doi
:
10.1098/rsnr.1957.0008
.
ISSN
0035-9149
.
JSTOR
530833
.
S2CID
202574705
.
- ^
Sagan & Druyan 1997
, p. 44.
- ^
Sagan & Druyan 1997
, p. 48.
- ^
Lancaster-Brown, Peter (1985).
Halley & His Comet
. Blandford Press. pp. 76?78.
ISBN
0-7137-1447-6
.
- ^
a
b
Sagan & Druyan 1997
, p. 56.
- ^
Halley E. (1686), "An Historical Account of the Trade Winds, and Monsoons, Observable in the Seas between and Near the Tropicks, with an Attempt to Assign the Phisical Cause of the Said Winds",
Philosophical Transactions
,
16
:153?168
doi
:
10.1098/rstl.1686.0026
- ^
Peter Ackroyd.
Newton.
Great Britain: Chatto and Windus, 2006.
- ^
Sagan & Druyan 1997
, p. 64.
- ^
a
b
Edmonds, Carl; Lowry, C; Pennefather, John.
"History of Diving"
.
South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society Journal
.
5
(2). Archived from the original on 14 October 2010
. Retrieved
17 March
2009
.
{{
cite journal
}}
: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
link
)
- ^
"History: Edmond Halley"
. London Diving Chamber
. Retrieved
6 December
2006
.
- ^
Gubbins, David,
Encyclopedia of Geomagnetism and Paleomagnetism
, Springer Press (2007),
ISBN
1-4020-3992-1
,
ISBN
978-1-4020-3992-8
, p. 67
- ^
a
b
Sagan & Druyan 1997
, p. 62.
- ^
Sagan & Druyan 1997
, p. 59.
- ^
Sagan & Druyan 1997
, p. 63.
- ^
Derek Gjertsen,
The Newton Handbook
,
ISBN
0-7102-0279-2
, pg 250
- ^
Halley, E. (1692).
"An account of the cause of the change of the variation of the magnetic needle; with an hypothesis of the structure of the internal parts of the earth"
.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London
.
16
(179?191): 470?478.
- ^
Carroll, Robert Todd
(13 February 2006).
"hollow Earth"
.
Skeptic's Dictionary
. Retrieved
23 July
2006
.
- ^
"10 Illuminating Facts about the Northern Lights"
.
Oceanwide Expeditions
. Retrieved
24 August
2018
.
- ^
V. Clube and B. Napier,
The Cosmic Serpent
London: Faber and Faber, 1982.
- ^
Deutsch, A., C. Koeberl, J.D. Blum, B.M. French, B.P. Glass, R. Grieve, P. Horn, E.K. Jessberger, G. Kurat, W.U. Reimold, J. Smit, D. Stoffler, and S.R. Taylor, 1994,
The impact-flood connection: Does it exist?
Terra Nova. v. 6, pp. 644?650.
- ^
Sagan & Druyan 1997
, p. 67.
- ^
Sagan & Druyan 1997
, pp. 67?68.
- ^
Sagan & Druyan 1997
, p. 68.
- ^
Halley, Edmond (1982).
The Three Voyages of Edmond Halley in the Paramore, 1698?1701
. UK: Hakluyt Society. pp. 129?131.
ISBN
0-904180-02-6
.
- ^
Cook, Alan (2001).
"Edmond Halley and the Magnetic Field of the Earth"
.
Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London
.
55
(3): 473?490.
doi
:
10.1098/rsnr.2001.0158
.
ISSN
0035-9149
.
JSTOR
531953
.
S2CID
122788971
.
- ^
Robinson, A. H.; Wallis, Helen M. (1967).
"Humboldt's Map of Isothermal Lines: A Milestone in Thematic Cartography"
.
The Cartographic Journal
.
4
(2): 119?123.
Bibcode
:
1967CartJ...4..119R
.
doi
:
10.1179/caj.1967.4.2.119
.
ISSN
0008-7041
.
- ^
a
b
Sagan & Druyan 1997
, p. 70.
- ^
Halley or Locke,'
A Collection of Voyages and Travels, some now first printed from manuscript
',
Preface
, p.lxxiii
- ^
Sagan & Druyan 1997
, pp. 66?67.
- ^
Sagan & Druyan 1997
, p. 66.
- ^
M.B. Hall, '
Arabick Learning in the Correspondence of the Royal Society, 1660?1677
',
The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in 17th-Century England
, p.154
- ^
Michael N. Fried, '
Edmond Halley's Reconstruction of the Lost Book of Apollonius's Conics: Translation and Commentary
', Spring 2011
- ^
Wakefield, Julie; Press, Joseph Henry (2005).
Halley's Quest: A Selfless Genius and His Troubled Paramore
. USA: National Academies Press.
ISBN
0309095948
. Retrieved
5 January
2015
.
- ^
Aitken, Robert G.
(October 1942).
"Edmund Halley and Stellar Proper Motions"
.
Astronomical Society of the Pacific Leaflets
.
4
(164). SAO/NASA
Astrophysics Data System
(ADS): 108.
Bibcode
:
1942ASPL....4..103A
. Retrieved
27 June
2021
– via Harvard.edu.
- ^
Holberg, Jay B. (2007).
Sirius: Brightest Diamond in the Night Sky
. Chichester, UK: Praxis Publishing. pp. 41?42.
ISBN
978-0-387-48941-4
.
- ^
Johnson, Anthony,
Solving Stonehenge, The New Key to an Ancient Enigma
(Thames & Hudson 2008)
ISBN
978-0-500-05155-9
- ^
"Location of Edmond Halley's tomb"
.
shadyoldlady.com
. The Shady Old Lady's guide to London
. Retrieved
5 January
2015
.
- ^
Halley's gravesite is in a cemetery at the junction of Lee Terrace and Brandram Road, across from the Victorian Parish Church of St Margaret. The cemetery is a 30-minute walk from the
Greenwich Observatory
.
- ^
"Photograph of Edmond Halley's Tombstone"
.
flamsteed.org
. Flamsteed Society
. Retrieved
5 January
2015
.
- ^
Redfern, Dave (Summer 2004).
Doing the Halley Walk
(Issue 14 ed.). London: Horizons
. Retrieved
5 January
2015
.
- ^
Rosenfeld, Randall; Edgar, James (2010).
"2010JRASC.104...28R Page 28"
.
Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada
.
104
(1): 28.
Bibcode
:
2010JRASC.104...28R
. Retrieved
23 May
2022
.
- ^
Ian Ridpath.
"Saying Hallo to Halley"
. Retrieved
8 November
2011
.
- ^
"Science: Q&A"
.
The New York Times
. 14 May 1985
. Retrieved
8 November
2011
.
- ^
Hughes, David W.; Green, Daniel W. E. (January 2007).
"Halley's First Name: Edmond or Edmund"
(PDF)
.
International Comet Quarterly
.
29
.
Harvard University
: 7.
Bibcode
:
2007ICQ....29....7H
.
- ^
"Longitude ⓒ (1999)"
. Retrieved
22 June
2021
.
- ^
"Guide Profile: Bill Haley"
. Oldies.about.com. Archived from
the original
on 21 January 2012
. Retrieved
8 November
2011
.
Sources
[
edit
]
Further reading
[
edit
]
- Armitage, Angus (1966).
Edmond Halley
. London: Nelson.
- Coley, Noel (1986).
"Halley and Post-Restoration Science"
.
History Today
.
36
(September): 10?16.
- Cook, Alan H. (1998).
Edmond Halley: Charting the Heavens and the Seas
. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Bibcode
:
1998ehch.book.....C
.
- Darrigol, Olivier (2012).
A History of Optics from Greek Antiquity to the Nineteenth Century
. Oxford University. p. 76.
ISBN
9780191627453
.
Halley is noted as the first to publish the algebraic version of the
thin lens equation
.
- Ronan, Colin A. (1969).
Edmond Halley, Genius in Eclipse
. Garden City, New York: Doubleday and Company.
- Seyour, Ian (1996).
"Edmond Halley ? explorer"
.
History Today
.
46
(June): 39?44. Archived from
the original
on 12 February 2011
. Retrieved
26 August
2017
.
- Sarah Irving (2008). "Natural science and the origins of the British empire (London,1704), 92?93".
A Collection of Voyages and Travels
.
3
(June): 92?93.
External links
[
edit
]
- Edmond Halley Biography (SEDS)
- Edmond Halley's 1716 paper
describing how transits could be used to measure the Sun's distance, translated from Latin.
- A Halley Odyssey
- The National Portrait Gallery (London) has several portraits of Halley:
Search the collection
Archived
19 December 2006 at the
Wayback Machine
- Halley, Edmond,
An Estimate of the Degrees of the Mortality of Mankind (1693)
- Halley, Edmond,
Some Considerations about the Cause of the Universal Deluge (1694)
- A synopsis of the astronomy of comets By Edmund Halley, Savilian Professor of Geometry, at Oxford; And Fellow of the Royal Society. Translated from the Original, printed at Oxford
. Oxford: John Senex. 1705 – via Internet Archive.
- Material on Halley's life table for Breslau on the Life & Work of Statisticians site:
Halley, Edmond
- Halley, Edmund,
Considerations on the Changes of the Latitudes of Some of the Principal Fixed Stars (1718)
? Reprinted in R. G. Aitken,
Edmund Halley and Stellar Proper Motions
(1942)
- O'Connor, John J.;
Robertson, Edmund F.
,
"Edmond Halley"
,
MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive
,
University of St Andrews
- Online catalogue of Halley's working papers (part of the Royal Greenwich Observatory Archives held at Cambridge University Library)
- Halley, Edmond (1724)
"Some considerations about the cause of the universal deluge, laid before the Royal Society, on the 12th of December 1694"
Archived
15 October 2019 at the
Wayback Machine
and
"Some farther thoughts upon the same subject, delivered on the 19th of the same month"
Archived
15 October 2019 at the
Wayback Machine
Philosophical Transactions, Giving Some Account of the Present Undertakings, Studies, and Labours of the Ingenious, in Many Considerable Parts of the World. Vol. 33
p. 118?125. ? digital facsimile from
Linda Hall Library
- Works by Edmond Halley
at
LibriVox
(public domain audiobooks)
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