This article is about the coloring process. For the cessation of life, see
Dying
.
Process of adding color to textile products
Dyeing
Pigments for sale at a market in
Goa
, India
Cotton being dyed manually in contemporary India
Silk dye in pan on stove.
Khotan
Dyeing
is the application of
dyes
or
pigments
on
textile
materials such as
fibers
,
yarns
, and
fabrics
with the goal of achieving color with desired
color fastness
. Dyeing is normally done in a special
solution
containing
dyes
and particular chemical material. Dye
molecules
are fixed to the fiber by absorption, diffusion, or bonding with temperature and time being key controlling factors. The bond between the dye molecule and fiber may be strong or weak, depending on the dye used. Dyeing and printing are different applications; in printing, color is applied to a localized area with desired patterns. In dyeing, it is applied to the entire textile.
The primary source of dye, historically, has been
nature
, with the dyes being extracted from
plants
or
animals
. Since the mid-19th century, however, humans have produced artificial dyes to achieve a broader range of colors and to render the dyes more stable for washing and general use. Different classes of dyes are used for different types of fiber and at different stages of the textile production process, from loose fibers through
yarn
and cloth to complete garments.
Acrylic fibers
are dyed with basic dyes, while
nylon
and protein fibers such as
wool
and
silk
are dyed with
acid dyes
, and
polyester
yarn is dyed with
dispersed dyes
.
Cotton
is dyed with a range of dye types, including
vat dyes
, and modern synthetic reactive and direct dyes.
Etymology
[
edit
]
The word 'dye' (
,
DIE
) comes from the
Middle English
'deie'
, and from the
Old English
'dag'
and
'dah'
.
[1]
The first known use of the word 'dye' was before the 12th century.
[2]
History
[
edit
]
Dyeing in
Fes, Morocco
Children playing amongst drying colored cloth in
Bangladesh
The earliest dyed
flax
fibers have been found in a prehistoric cave in the
Georgia
and dates back to 34,000 BC.
[3]
[4]
More evidence of
textile
dyeing dates back to the
Neolithic
period at the large
Neolithic
settlement at
Catalhoyuk
in southern
Anatolia
, where traces of red dyes, possibly from
ocher
, an
iron oxide
pigment
derived from
clay
, were found.
[5]
In
China
, dyeing with plants,
barks
, and
insects
has been traced back more than 5,000 years.
[6]
: 11
Early evidence of dyeing comes from
Sindh
province in
Ancient India
modern day
Pakistan
, where a piece of cotton dyed with a vegetable dye was recovered from the archaeological site at
Mohenjo-daro
(3rd millennium BCE).
[7]
The dye used in this case was
madder
, which, along with other dyes such as
indigo
, was introduced to other regions through trade.
[7]
Natural insect dyes such as
Cochineal
and
kermes
and plant-based dyes such as
woad
, indigo and madder were important elements of the economies of Asia and Europe until the discovery of man-made
synthetic dyes
in the mid-19th century. The first synthetic dye was
William Perkin
's
mauveine
in 1856, derived from
coal tar
.
Alizarin
, the red dye present in madder, was the first natural pigment to be duplicated synthetically in 1869,
[8]
a development which led to the collapse of the market for naturally grown madder.
[6]
: 65
The development of new, strongly colored synthetic dyes followed quickly, and by the 1870s commercial dyeing with natural dyestuffs was disappearing. An important characteristic was
light-fastness
- resistance to fading when exposed to sunlight using industrial techniques such as those developed by
James Morton
.
Methods
[
edit
]
Dyeing can be applied at various stages within the
textile manufacturing
process; for example, fibers may be dyed before being spun into yarns, and yarns may be dyed before being woven into fabrics. Fabrics and sometimes finished garments themselves may also be dyed.
[9]
The stage at which a product is dyed varies depending on its intended end use, the cost to the manufacturer, its desired appearance, and the resources available, amongst other reasons. There are specific terms to describe these dyeing methods, such as:
- Dope dyeing
: In dope dyeing,
pigments
are added to the
polymer
solution itself before extruding the fibers. The process provides the dyed fibers with excellent
fastness
properties. The dope dyeing applies to
synthetic fiber
only. This method of dyeing is also known as solution dyeing
[10]
and 'mass coloration' or 'mass colored'. It has limited color options.
[11]
[12]
- Fiber dyeing
: In fiber dyeing, the dyeing takes place at the fiber stage before they are spun into yarn. It is also called stock dyeing. Examples are
melanges
and
medleys
.
[13]
[14]
- Yarn dyeing
: In yarn dyeing, the yarns are dyed first before the fabric manufacturing stage. The yarn dyeing happens in hanks or in package dyeing. Package dyeing is a method where yarns are wound on perforated cones placed in a dye vessel. The dye solution is then alternatively pushed inside out and vice versa. Examples are many stripes, patterned (checks) and jacquard designed fabrics.
[9]
[15]
- Piece dyeing
: In piece dyeing, the dyeing takes place after producing fabrics with undyed yarns. Most of the solid dyed fabrics are dyed with the piece dyeing method, and the materials are also called piece dyed.
[9]
- Garment dyeing
: In garment dyeing, the garments are constructed of undyed, but ready-for-dyeing, fabrics.
[12]
Terms for different dyed materials
[
edit
]
There are various terms used in the manufacturing and marketing industries depending on the method used to dye the substrate. For example, "stock dyed" refers to dyeing the fibers before making the yarn, "yarn dyed" refers to dyeing the yarns before producing fabrics, and "piece dyed" or "fabric dyed" refers to dyeing the yarns after they are converted into fabric. The fastness of fiber- and yarn-dyed materials is superior to that of fabrics.
[16]
Objective
[
edit
]
The primary objective of the dyeing process is to achieve uniform color application in accordance with a predetermined color matching standard or reference on the
substrate
,
[17]
which may be a fiber, yarn, or fabric, while meeting specified
colour fastness
requirements. Tie-dye and printing are the methods where the color is applied in a localized manner.
[18]
Application
[
edit
]
Exhaust dyeing
vessel
Exhaust method
[
edit
]
In the exhaust method, the dye is transported to the substrate by the dye liquor's motion. The dye is adsorbed onto the fibre surface and ideally diffuses into the whole of the fibre. Water consumption in exhaust application is higher than the continuous dyeing method.
[18]
There are three corresponding ways of dyeing with the exhaust method.
- Liquor circulating
: loose stock, sliver, tow, yarn or fabric, is packed into canisters, wound onto cones or perforated beams and placed inside the dyeing vessel. In this way the liquor is pumped and revolves through the material which is stationary.
- Material circulating
: Fabric winch dyeing and jiggers are the few forms in which material remains in motion and liquor stationary. In this the material moves through the stationary liquor.
- Liquor and material both in motion
: Jet dyeing and softflow dyeing application methods where material and liquor both remain in motion.
Continuous method
[
edit
]
In continuous method dye is transported to the substrate by passing it through the different stages but continuously.
[18]
The continuous method is an innovative method where many discrete dyeing stages are combined, such as applying color, fixation and, washing off of unfixed dyes.
[19]
[20]
Types of continuous dyeing are as follows
Cold pad batch
method is a semi-continuous dyeing process.
[21]
[22]
Waterless dyeing method
[
edit
]
Waterless dyeing, also known as dry dyeing, is the newly developed and more sustainable dyeing method in which the dyes are applied to the substrate with the help of
carbon dioxide
or solutions that need less or no water compared to their counterparts.
[23]
[24]
[25]
Selection of dyes
[
edit
]
The selection of the appropriate
dyes
is most important because any given dye does not apply to every type of
fiber
. Dyes are classified according to many parameters, such as chemical structure, affinity, application method, desired
colour fastness
i.e. resistance to washing, rubbing, and light.
[18]
The properties may vary with different dyes. The selection of dye depends on the objective in dyeing and affinity (to which material is to be dyed). Fastness of
color
largely depends upon the molecular size of the dyes and the solubility. Larger molecular size serves better washing fastness results.
[26]
Indigo dyes
have a poor wash and rubbing fastness on denim (cotton), so they are used to produce washed-down effects on fabrics. In contrast,
vat
or
reactive dyes
are applied to cotton to achieve excellent washing fastness.
The next important criterion for selecting dyes is the assessment of hazards to human health and the
environment
. There are many dyes especially
disperse dyes
that may cause allergic reactions to some individuals,
[27]
and the negative impact on the environment.
[28]
There are national and international standards and
regulations
which need to comply.
Direct application
[
edit
]
Chemical structure of
Vat Green 1
, a type of
vat dye
The term "direct dye application" stems from some dyestuff having to be either fermented as in the case of some natural dye or chemically
reduced
as in the case of synthetic vat and sulfur dyes before being applied. This renders the dye soluble so that it can be absorbed by the fiber since the insoluble dye has very little substantivity to the fiber. Direct dyes, a class of dyes largely for dyeing cotton, are water-soluble and can be applied directly to the fiber from an aqueous solution. Most other classes of synthetic dye, other than vat and surface dyes, are also applied in this way.
The term may also be applied to dyeing without the use of
mordants
to fix the dye once it is applied. Mordants were often required to alter the hue and intensity of natural dyes and improve
color fastness
.
Chromium
salts were until recently extensively used in dyeing wool with synthetic mordant dyes. These were used for economical high color fastness dark shades such as
black
and
navy
. Environmental concerns have now restricted their use, and they have been replaced with reactive and metal complex dyes that do not require mordant.
Yarn dyeing
[
edit
]
Dyed wool reels (
CSIRO
)
There are many forms of
yarn
dyeing. Common forms are the package form and the hanks form. Cotton yarns are mostly dyed at package form, and acrylic or wool yarn are dyed at hank form. In the continuous filament industry, polyester or polyamide yarns are always dyed at package form, while viscose rayon yarns are partly dyed at hank form because of technology.
[29]
The common dyeing process of cotton yarn with reactive dyes at package form is as follows:
- The raw yarn is wound on a spring tube to achieve a package suitable for dye penetration.
- These softened packages are loaded on a dyeing carrier's spindle one on another.
- The packages are pressed up to a desired height to achieve suitable density of packing.
- The carrier is loaded on the dyeing machine and the yarn is dyed.
- After dyeing, the packages are unloaded from the carrier into a trolley.
- Now the trolley is taken to hydro extractor where water is removed.
- The packages are hydro extracted to remove the maximum amount of water leaving the desired color into raw yarn.
- The packages are then dried to achieve the final dyed package.
After this process, the dyed yarn packages are packed and delivered.
Space dyeing
[
edit
]
Space dyed yarn
Space dyeing is a technique of localized color application that produces a unique multicolored effect.
[30]
[31]
History of garment dyeing
[
edit
]
Garment dyeing is the process of dyeing fully fashioned garments subsequent to manufacturing, as opposed to the conventional method of manufacturing garments from pre-dyed fabrics.
Up until the mid-1970s the method was rarely used for commercial clothing production. It was used domestically, to overdye old, worn and faded clothes, and also by resellers of used or surplus military clothing. The first notable industrial use of the technique was made by
Benetton
, which garment dyed its Shetland wool knitwear.
Complex garment dyeing
[
edit
]
In the mid-1970s the
Bologna
clothing designer
Massimo Osti
began experimenting with the garment dyeing technique. His experimentation over the next decade, led to the pioneering of not just the industrial use of traditional garment dyeing (dyeing simple cotton or wool garments) but, more importantly, the technique of “complex garment dyeing” which involved dyeing fully fashioned garments which had been constructed from multiple fabric or fiber types (e.g. a jacket made from both nylon and cotton, or linen, nylon and polyurethane coated cotton) in the same bath.
Up until its development by Osti (for his clothing brand
C.P. Company
), this technique had never been successfully industrially applied in any context. The complexity lay in developing both a practical and chemical understanding of how each fabric responded differently to the dye, how much it would shrink, how much color it would absorb, developing entirely new forms of quality control to verify possible defects in fabric before dyeing etc.
Beyond the industrial advantages of the technique (purchasing fabric in one color, white or natural, you may produce as many colors as you wish etc.), the artistic advantages of the technique were considerable and in many ways paved the way for the creation of the clothing style today known as Italian Sportswear. These advantages included
- the way in which different fibers absorbed the dye's color allowed for the creation of incredibly nuanced differences in color tones and a harmony that is impossible to achieve any other way
- the garment dyeing process naturally gave the fabric a “worn-in” hand allowing for the development of the casual and relaxed version of the classic menswear look which characterizes Italian sportswear
- the fact that each fabric and fiber type responds differently to the dye also produces a “deconstructed” effect, whereby the consumer's attention is drawn to the construction techniques of the jacket. For example: a more densely woven fabric absorbs the color less intensely than a more open weave, the polyester stitching used for a cotton garment does not absorb any dye color, producing a contrast color stitch etc.
The disadvantages included:
- a relatively high failure rate for garments (between 5?10%)
- the difficulty in achieving a very tailored look due to difficulties in precisely calculating shrinkage rates
- high research and prototyping costs in order to understand how fabrics will behave in production
Today, whilst garment dyeing is a diffusely employed as an industrial technique around the globe, predominantly in the production of vintage style cotton garments and by
fast fashion
suppliers, complex garment dyeing is still practiced almost exclusively in Italy, by a handful of premium brands and suppliers who remain committed to the art.
Related terms
[
edit
]
There are several terms associated with the process of dyeing:
Affinity
[
edit
]
Affinity refers to the chemical attraction between two elements or substances, leading to their inclination to unite or combine, as observed between fiber and dyestuff.
[32]
: 4
[33]
Bleeding
[
edit
]
Materials that exhibit bleeding tendencies may lead to the staining of white or light-colored fabrics in contact with them while in a wet state. The phenomenon of color fading from a fabric or yarn upon immersion in water, solvent, or a comparable liquid medium, arises due to inadequate dyeing or the utilization of inferior quality dyes.
[32]
: 16
[34]
Staining
[
edit
]
Fabric can experience undesired color absorption, resulting in staining, when exposed to water, dry-cleaning solvent, or similar liquids containing unintended dyestuffs or coloring materials. Additionally, direct contact with other dyed materials may cause color transfer through bleeding or sublimation.
[32]
: 150
[35]
Stripping
[
edit
]
Stripping
is a method used to partially or entirely remove color from dyed textile materials. It can also be utilized as a reprocessing technique to correct imperfect dyeing.
[36]
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
"Dyeing"
. The Free Dictionary By Farlex
. Retrieved
2012-05-25
.
- ^
"Dye"
. Merriam-Webster
. Retrieved
2012-05-25
.
- ^
Balter, M. (2009). "Clothes Make the (Hu) Man".
Science
.
325
(5946): 1329.
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:
10.1126/science.325_1329a
.
PMID
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.
- ^
Kvavadze, E; Bar-Yosef, O; Belfer-Cohen, A; Boaretto, E; Jakeli, N; Matskevich, Z; Meshveliani, T (2009).
"30,000-year-old wild flax fibers"
(PDF)
.
Science
.
325
(5946): 1359.
Bibcode
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2009Sci...325.1359K
.
doi
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10.1126/science.1175404
.
PMID
19745144
.
S2CID
206520793
.
Supporting Material
- ^
Barber (1991), pp. 223-225.
[
full citation needed
]
- ^
a
b
Goodwin, Jill (1982).
A Dyer's Manual
. Pelham.
ISBN
978-0-7207-1327-5
.
- ^
a
b
Bhardwaj, H.C. & Jain, K.K., "Indian Dyes and Industry During 18th-19th Century",
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17
(11): 70-81,
New Delhi
:
Indian National Science Academy
.
- ^
Hans-Samuel Bien, Josef Stawitz, Klaus Wunderlich "Anthraquinone Dyes and Intermediates" in
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, 2005, Weinheim: 2005.
doi
:
10.1002/14356007.a02
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- ^
a
b
c
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ISBN
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.
- ^
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ISBN
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.
- ^
MATHEWS, KOLANJIKOMBIL (2017).
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ISBN
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.
- ^
a
b
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ISBN
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.
- ^
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ISBN
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.
- ^
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. Garland STPM Press.
ISBN
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.
- ^
Wingate, Isabel Barnum (1979).
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ISBN
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.
- ^
Smith, Margaret (1957).
Clothing Fabrics: Facts for Consumer Education
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- ^
Clark, M. (2011-10-25).
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ISBN
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- ^
a
b
c
d
Clark, M. (2011-10-25).
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ISBN
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- ^
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d
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. Woodhead Publishing India PVT. Limited. pp. 83, 95.
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- ^
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- ^
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- ^
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- ^
Farer Thread
- ^
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.
- ^
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.
- ^
a
b
c
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. Internet Archive. Hoechst Celanese.
- ^
Aspland, J. Richard (1997).
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- ^
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. Routledge. p. 97.
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.
- ^
US4227881A
, Fono, Andrew, "New process of color stripping dyed textile fabric", issued 1980-10-14
Look up
dyeing
in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
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