Cuilen

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Cuilen mac Illuilb
King of Scots
Reign 967?971
Predecessor Dub mac Mail Choluim
Successor Amlaib mac Illuilb and/or Cinaed mac Mail Choluim
Died 971
Burial
St Andrews
Issue Custantin , Mael Coluim?
House Alpin
Father Illulb mac Custantin

Cuilen (also Culen, Cuilean , anglicized Colin; died 971) was an early King of Alba ( Scotland ). He was a son of Illulb mac Custantin , King of Alba, after whom he is known by the patronymic mac Illuilb (also mac Iduilb , mac Ilduilb etc. [note 1] ) of Clann Aeda meic Cinaeda, a branch of the Alpinid dynasty . During the 10th century, the Alpinids rotated the kingship of Alba between two main dynastic branches. Dub mac Mail Choluim , a member of a rival branch of the kindred, seems to have succeeded after Illulb's death in 962. Cuilen soon after challenged him but was defeated in 965. Dub was eventually expelled and slain in 966/967. Whether Cuilen was responsible for his death is uncertain.

Following Dub's fall, Cuilen appears to have ruled as undisputed king from 966–971. Little is known of Cuilen's short reign other than his own death in 971. According to various sources, he and his brother, Eochaid, were slain by Britons . Some sources identify Cuilen's killer as Rhydderch ap Dyfnwal , a man whose daughter had been abducted and raped by the king. Rhydderch was evidently a man of eminent standing, and seems to have been a son of Dyfnwal ab Owain, King of Strathclyde , and could have possibly ruled the Cumbrian Kingdom of Strathclyde at the time of Cuilen's death.

After Cuilen's assassination, the kingship of Alba may have been assumed by another member of Clann Aeda meic Cinaeda, Cinaed mac Mail Choluim , a man who appears to have launched a retaliatory raid against the Cumbrians. There is evidence indicating that Cinaed faced considerable opposition from Cuilen's brother, Amlaib , a man who was accorded the title King of Alba in Irish sources recording his death at Cinaed's hands in 977. Cuilen's son, Custantin , eventually succeeded Cinaed as king. There is evidence to suggest that Cuilen had another son, Mael Coluim.

Name [ edit ]

Refer to caption
Cuilen's name as it appears on folio 29v of Paris Bibliotheque Nationale MS Latin 4126 (the Poppleton manuscript ): " Culenr?g ". [13] The word might include an epithet at the end, or may be corrupted from a copying error.

Cuilen was one of three sons of Illulb mac Custantin, King of Alba (died 962). [14] The two other sons were Eochaid (died 971) and Amlaib (died 977). [15] Illulb was in turn a son of Custantin mac Aeda, King of Alba (died 952), a man who possessed strong connections with the Scandinavian dynasty of Dublin. [16] There is evidence to suggest that some of Custantin's descendants bore Scandinavian names. [17] For instance, Illulb's name could be either a Gaelicised form of the Old English personal name Eadwulf , [18] or a Gaelicised form of the Old Norse personal name Hildulfr . [19] If the latter possibility is indeed correct, Illulb's name could indicate that his mother was a member of a Scandinavian kindred. [20] Likewise, Amlaib's name could represent a form of the Gaelic personal name Amalgaid , [21] or else a Gaelicised form of an Old Norse personal name Olafr . [22] Therefore, Amlaib's name could indicate that his mother was a member of a Scandinavian kindred as well, [23] and perhaps a descendant of Amlaib Cuaran (died 980/981) or Amlaib mac Gofraid (died 941). [24]

Further evidence of Scandinavian influence on the contemporary Scottish court may be a possible epithet accorded to Cuilen by the ninth–twelfth-century Chronicle of the Kings of Alba . [25] In one instance, this source records Cuilen's name as " Culenri[n]g ". [26] [27] Most likely this is just Cuilen Rig - Rig (modern Gaelic: righ) being the Gaelic word for 'king'. Whilst it has also been suggested that this word represents the Old Norse hringr , meaning " ring " [28] or " ring-giver ", [29] the name instead may be corrupted from a scribal error, and the word itself might refer to something else. [30]

The Alpinid dynasty [ edit ]

Map of northern Britain
Locations relating to the life and times of Cuilen.

Cuilen and his immediate family were members of the ruling Alpinid dynasty , the patrilineal descendants of Cinaed mac Ailpin, King of the Picts (died 858). [31] The root of this kindred's early success laid in its ability to successfully rotate the royal succession amongst its members. [33] For example, Illulb's father—a member of the Clann Aeda meic Cinaeda branch of the dynasty—succeeded Domnall mac Causantin (died 900)—a member of the Clann Custantin meic Cinaeda branch—and following a reign of forty years resigned the kingship to this man's son, Mael Coluim mac Domnaill (died 954). [34] [note 2] Cuilen's father succeeded to the kingship following Mael Coluim's demise, and ruled as king until his own death in 962. [36] The record of Illulb's fall at the hands of an invading Scandinavian host is the last time Irish and Scottish sources note Viking encroachment into the kingdom. [37] The Scandinavian Kingdom of York had collapsed by the 950s, and the warbands of the kings of Dublin seem to have ceased their overseas adventures during this period as well. Unlike English monarchs who had to endure Viking depredations from the 980s to the 1010s, the kings of Alba were left in relative peace from about the time of Illulb's fall. Free from such outside threats the Alpinids seem to have struggled amongst themselves. [38]

Contested kingship and kin-strife [ edit ]

Refer to caption
The name of Cuilen's rival kinsman, Dub mac Mail Choluim , as it appears on folio 32v of Oxford Bodleian Library MS Rawlinson B 489. [39]
Photograph of an inscribed panel on Sueno's Stone
Detail of inscriptions upon Sueno's Stone which may represent Dub's demise. The visible arch could represent a bridge, and the framed head under the arch may represent Dub, whose body was traditionally said to have been hidden beneath a bridge.

There is some uncertainty regarding the succession after Illulb's demise. On one hand, he may well have been succeeded by Mael Coluim's son, Dub (died 966/967). [40] [note 3] Such a chronology is certainly evinced by the fourteenth-century Chronica gentis Scotorum and various king lists. [42] The twelfth-century Prophecy of Berchan , on the other hand, states that the kingship was temporarily shared by Dub and Cuilen. If correct, this source could indicate that neither man had been strong enough to displace the other in the immediate aftermath of Illulb's passing. [43] Although the Alpinid branches represented by Illulb and Dub seem to have maintained peace throughout Illulb's reign, [44] inter-dynastic conflict clearly erupted in the years that followed. [45]

The Chronicle of the Kings of Alba may indicate that Dub spent much of his reign contending with Cuilen. [46] Certainly, this source states that the two battled each other on Dorsum Crup , where Dunchad, Abbot of Dunkeld (died 965), and Dubdon, satrap of Atholl (died 965) were slain. [47] [note 4] The battle seems to have taken place at Duncrub , [52] possibly the same site as the first-century Battle of Mons Graupius . [53] The conflict itself is attested by the fifteenth–sixteenth-century Annals of Ulster in 965, in an entry recording Dunchad's fall in a clash between the men of Alba. [54] Although the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba states that Dub attained the victory, the same source reports that he was later expelled from the kingdom. [55] The Annals of Ulster reports Dub's death in 967. [56] According to the so-called "X" group of king lists, Dub was killed at Forres and his body was hidden under a bridge at Kinloss during a solar eclipse . [57] The account of Dub's death preserved by the fifteenth-century Orygynale Cronykil of Scotland , [58] and Chronica gentis Scotorum also associate the king's fall with an eclipse. [59] [note 5] If these sources are to be believed, Dub would seem to have fallen before the solar eclipse of 20 July 966. [62]

There is reason to suspect that the inscriptions displayed upon Sueno's Stone , alongside the Kinloss road at Forres, commemorate the final defeat and death of Dub. [63] One of the panels of this remarkable monument appears to show corpses and heads lying under an arch which may well represent a bridge. One of the heads is framed, which may be that of Dub himself. [64] Although the stone does not appear to make reference to an eclipse, it is possible that such an event was inserted into the traditional account as a means to improve the tale. If so, the aforesaid date recorded by the Annals of Ulster may well be correct. [57] The chronology of Dub's death could be evidence that his downfall came after Cuilen's consolidation of the kingship. [65] Although it is conceivable that Dub was slain in favour of his successor, [66] this may not necessarily have been the case [67] —certainly Cuilen is not stated to have been responsible for his death [38] —and it is possible that events transpired without Cuilen's interference. [67]

Reign and death [ edit ]

Refer to caption
The name of Cuilen's brother, Amlaib mac Illuilb , as it appears on folio 15r of Oxford Bodleian Library MS Rawlinson B 488 (the Annals of Tigernach ): " Amlaim mac Illuilb ". [68] Amlaib seems to have held the kingship between 971/976–977. [69]

Cuilen's undisputed reign seems to have spanned from 966 to 971. [70] As far as surviving sources record, Cuilen's reign appears to have been relatively uneventful. [71] His death in 971 is noted by several sources. According to the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba , Cuilen and his brother, Eochaid (died 971), were killed by Britons. [72] The Annals of Ulster also reports that Cuilen fell in battle against Britons, [73] whilst the twelfth-century Chronicon Scotorum specifies that Britons killed him within a burning house. [74] The Chronicle of the Kings of Alba locates Cuilen's fall to " Ybandonia ". [75] Although this might refer to Abington in South Lanarkshire , [76] a more likely location may be preserved by the twelfth–thirteenth-century Chronicle of Melrose . This source states that Cuilen was killed at " Loinas ", [77] a placename which seems to refer to either Lothian or the Lennox , [78] both plausible locations for an outbreak of hostilities between Scots and Britons. [79] In fact, " Ybandonia " itself could well refer to Lothian, [80] or the Lennox. [81] The account of Cuilen's demise preserved by the Prophecy of Berchan is somewhat different. According to this source, Cuilen met his end whilst "seeking a foreign land", which could indicate that he was attempting to lift taxes from the Cumbrians. [82] The Chronicle of the Kings of Alba reports that Cuilen's killer was a certain Rhydderch ap Dyfnwal ( fl. 971), a man who slew Cuilen for the sake of his own daughter. [83] The thirteenth-century Verse Chronicle , [84] the Chronicle of Melrose , [85] and Chronica gentis Scotorum likewise identify Cuilen's killer as Rhydderch, the father of an abducted daughter raped by the king. [86]

Refer to caption
The name of Cuilen's killer, Rhydderch ap Dyfnwal , as it appears on folio 8v of British Library Cotton MS Faustina B IX (the Chronicle of Melrose ): " Radhardus ". [87]

There is reason to suspect that Cuilen's killer was a son of Dyfnwal ab Owain, King of Strathclyde (died 975). [88] Although there is no specific evidence that Rhydderch was himself a king, [89] the fact that Cuilen was involved with his daughter, coupled with the fact that his warband was evidently strong enough to overcome that of Cuilen, suggests that Rhydderch must have been a man of eminent standing. [90] At about the time of Cuilen's demise, a granddaughter of Dyfnwal could well have been in her teens or twenties , and it is possible that the recorded events refer to a visit by the King of Alba to the court of the King of Strathclyde . [79] Such a visit may have taken place in the context of Cuilen exercising his lordship over the Britons. His dramatic death suggests that the Scots severely overstepped the bounds of hospitality, [91] and could indicate that Rhydderch was compelled to fire his own hall. Certainly, such killings are not unknown in Icelandic and Irish sources. [92] The Lothian placename of West Linton appears as Lyntun Ruderic in the twelfth century. The fact that the place name seems to refer to a man named Rhydderch could indicate that this was the place where Cuilen and Eochaid met their end. [93] Another way in which Cuilen may have met his end concerns the record of his father's earlier seizure of Edinburgh preserved by the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba . The fact that this conquest would have likely included at least part of Lothian, [94] coupled with the evidence locating Cuilen's demise to the same area, could indicate that Cuilen was slain in the midst of exercising overlordship of this contested territory. If so, the records that link Rhydderch with the regicide could reveal that this wronged father exploited Cuilen's vulnerable position in the region, and that Rhydderch seized the opportunity to avenge his daughter. [71]

Refer to caption
The name of Cuilen's successor, Cinaed mac Mail Choluim , as it appears on folio 15r of Oxford Bodleian Library MS Rawlinson B 488: " Cinaeth mac Mail Cholaim ". [68]

Although the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba reports that Dub's brother, Cinaed mac Mail Choluim (died 995), was the next King of Alba, [95] Irish sources—such as royal genealogies, [96] the fourteenth-century Annals of Tigernach , [97] and the Annals of Ulster —appear to reveal that Amlaib possessed the kingship before his death at Cinaed's hands. [98] Whilst Cinaed may well have initially succeeded to the kingship, [99] it seems that Amlaib was able to mount a successful—if only temporary—bid for the throne. Certainly, the aforesaid annal-entries style Amlaib a king and accord Cinaed a mere patronymic name. [100] [note 6] Amlaib's tenure is not attested by any Scottish king list, [102] and it would appear that his reign was indeed brief, perhaps dating from 971/976–977. [69] One possibility is that the kingship had been shared between Amlaib and Cinaed until the former's death. [103]

This revolving succession within the Alpinid dynasty reveals that the inter-dynastic struggle between Cuilen and Dub was continued by their respective brothers. [104] [note 7] As for Cuilen's other brother, Eochaid, this man's death with Cuilen seems to be evidence of his prominent position within the kingdom. The fact that Amlaib reigned after his brother's death likewise appears to indicate that he too played an important part in Cuilen's regime. [105] One of Cinaed's first acts as king was evidently an invasion of the Kingdom of Strathclyde. [106] This campaign could well have been a retaliatory response to Cuilen's killing, [107] carried out in the context of crushing a British affront to Scottish authority. [108] [note 8] In any event, Cinaed's invasion ended in defeat, [109] a fact which coupled with Cuilen's killing reveals that the Kingdom of Strathclyde was indeed a power to be reckoned with. [110]

Interment and offspring [ edit ]

Refer to caption
The name of Cuilen's son, Custantin mac Cuilein , as it appears on folio 15v of Oxford Bodleian Library MS Rawlinson B 488: " Constantin mac Cuilindain ". [111]

Cuilen appears to have been buried at St Andrews , the site of his father's burial. [112] According to the Prophecy of Berchan , he was laid to rest "above the edge of the wave", a location which seems to refer to St Andrews. [113] In other sources, he is sometimes stated to have been buried on Iona . [114] After an apparent two decade lull in the aforesaid Alpinid kin-strife, [115] Cuilen's son, Custantin (died 997), eventually became king after Cinaed's assassination in 995. [116] [note 9]

Custantin had no known male offspring. [118] He was the last of Clann Aeda meic Cinaeda to hold the kingship, [119] or even appear on record. [117] There is a possibility that Cuilen had another son, a certain Mael Coluim mac Cuilein who appears in a note preserved in the ninth–twelfth-century Book of Deer detailing donors to the monastery of Deer . [120] Certainly, Cuilen was a relatively rare personal name. [121] However, none of the names that precede his in the note can be linked to known historical personages, making such an identification questionable. [122] Nevertheless, the names that are recorded immediately after this man are certainly identifiable with known royal figures: Mael Coluim mac Cinaeda (died 1034), Mael Coluim mac Mail Brigte (died 1029), and Mael Snechta mac Lulaig (died 1085). [123] [note 10] If Mael Coluim mac Cuilein was indeed a son of Cuilen, this attestation could reveal that he represented Clann Aeda meic Cinaeda for a time during Cinaed's reign (971–995). [125]

Clann Aeda meic Cinaeda power centre [ edit ]

Refer to caption
The title accorded to Cuilen on folio 33r of Oxford Bodleian Library MS Rawlinson B 489. [126] Cuilen's patrilineal ancestor Aed mac Cinaeda—eponym of Clann Aed meic Cinaeda—is the last king to be accorded the Latin title rex Pictorum ("king of the Picts"). [127] Scottish kings were afterwards styled in Gaelic ri Alban ("king of Alba"). [128]

The rotating succession of the Alpinid dynasty was similar to that practiced in Ireland by the Cenel nEogain and Clann Cholmain branches of the Ui Neill , a dominant Irish kindred that monopolised the kingship of Tara between the eighth- and tenth centuries. [129] This alternation amongst the Ui Neill was facilitated by the considerable distance between the two segments. The inability of either branch to dominate the other, and therefore cut off their rivals from key resources, enabled such a rotating scheme to succeed. [130]

Photograph of a hogback sculpted tombstone
A hogback grave slab on display in Glasgow . Such monuments may be indicative of Scandinavian settlement in Perthshire and Fife . The aforesaid evidence of Scandinavian influence upon Cuilen's immediate family could indicate that his kindred was involved with such immigration. [29]

The similarities between the regulated Irish and Scottish successions suggest that the power centres of the two Alpinid branches were also separated. [131] By the early eleventh century, after the final fall of Clann Aeda meic Cinaeda, the opposing Clann Custantin meic Cinaeda branch faced challenges to the kingship from the Moray -based Clann Ruaidri . [132] [note 11] This could indicate that Clann Aeda meic Cinaeda was similarly seated north of the Mounth in Moray, with the power base of Clann Custantin meic Cinaeda situated in the south. [136] That the latter kindred was hostile to the men of the north may be evidenced by the record of Mael Coluim mac Domnaill's invasion of Moray preserved by the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba . [137] Furthermore, both this dynast and his son, Dub, are stated by Chronica gentis Scotorum to have been killed by Moravians. [138] In contrast to these records of conflict, there is no evidence of hostility between Clann Aeda meic Cinaeda and the men of Moray. [139]

On the other hand, the fact that king lists locate Dub's demise to Forres might indicate that Clann Custantin meic Cinaeda was instead based in the north. [140] Moreover, the fact that the Prophecy of Berchan records that Custantin mac Aeda retired to St Andrews, [141] a site where his descendants, Illulb and Cuilen, are also said to have been buried, [142] coupled with the location of Cuilen's death in the south against the Cumbrians, could reveal that Clann Aeda meic Cinaeda was centred south of the Mounth. [140] Such a location may also be evidenced by the aforesaid deaths of the Abbot of Dunkeld and the satrap of Atholl, men who seem to have fallen supporting the cause of Cuilen against Dub. [143]

Notes [ edit ]

  1. ^ Since the 1990s, academics have accorded Cuilen various patronymic names in English secondary sources: Cuilen mac Iduilb , [1] Cuilen mac Iduilf , [2] Cuilen mac Ilduilb , [3] Cuilen mac Illduilb , [4] Cuilen mac Illuilb , [5] Cuilen Ring mac Illuilb , [6] Culen mac Idulb , [7] Culen mac Illduilb , [8] and Culen mac Illuilb . [9] Likewise, since the 1990s academics have accorded Cuilen various epithets in English secondary sources: Cuilen Hringr , [10] Cuilen Ring mac Illuilb , [6] Culen Hringr , [11] and Culen Ring . [12]
  2. ^ These two branches of the Alpinid dynasty are not attested by contemporary records, but rather deduced as a result of the succession itself. [35]
  3. ^ Dub is the eponymous ancestor of the mediaeval Clann Duib earls of Fife. [41]
  4. ^ The account of Dub and Cuilen identifies these men as Niger and Caniculus respectively. These are literal Latinisations of their names which in turn mean "black" and "little dog". [48] The chronicler's employment of such Latinisations, including the term satrap , seems to be an example of pride in his volubility with Latin . [49] The latter term appears to refer to a mormaer . [50] The Prophecy of Berchan identifies Cuilen and Dub in Gaelic as fionn and dubh , meaning "white" and black". [51]
  5. ^ The account preserved by Chronica gentis Scotorum relates that Dub was murdered in his bed, [60] and is seemingly the inspiration behind the fictive murder of Duncan by Macbeth , portrayed in the second act of Macbeth , an early modern tragedy composed by the English playwright William Shakespeare (died 1616). [61]
  6. ^ The Annals of Ulster misidentifies Cinaed's father as Domnall, [101] a name which is that of his grandfather.
  7. ^ If Sueno's Stone indeed commemorates Dub, it is likely that its erection dates to Cinaed's reign. [57]
  8. ^ Cinaed's strike into Cumbrian territory could have been the last conflict of Dyfnwal's reign. [79]
  9. ^ Custantin is the first Scottish king for which a pedigree survives. This genealogy stretches back to Cinaed mac Ailpin and beyond, revealing that the dynasty claimed to be patrilineally descended from the kings of Dal Riata . Whether this was indeed the case is uncertain. The pedigree certainly reveals that the Alpinids wished to be regarded as Gaels by the end of the tenth century. [117]
  10. ^ Mael Coluim mac Cinaeda was a member of the Clann Custantin meic Cinaeda branch of the Alpinids. Mael Coluim mac Mail Brigte and Mael Snechta were members of Clann Ruaidri , a kindred that contested the kingship with the Alpinids after the extinction of the Clann Aeda meic Cinaeda branch. [124]
  11. ^ It is possible that Clann Ruaidri possessed a matrilineal link with Clann Aeda meic Cinaeda, a familial connection with the Alpinids that may have enabled members of Clann Ruaidri to launch bids for the kingship. [133] The first certain member of this kindred to appear on record is Findlaech mac Ruaidri in 1020. [134] It is possible that this man's father—the eponymous Ruaidri—or grandfather married a member of Clann Aeda meic Cinaeda. [135]

Citations [ edit ]

  1. ^ Hudson, BT (1998a) ; Hudson, BT (1996) ; Hudson, BT (1994) .
  2. ^ Hudson, BT (1994) .
  3. ^ McGuigan (2015) .
  4. ^ Thornton (2001) .
  5. ^ Monarchs of Scotland (842–1707) (2011) ; Broun (2004b) ; Woolf (2000) ; Broun (1999) .
  6. ^ a b Busse (2006b) ; Busse (2006c) .
  7. ^ Walker (2013) .
  8. ^ Charles-Edwards (2013) .
  9. ^ Lynch (2001) .
  10. ^ Monarchs of Scotland (842–1707) (2011) ; Broun (2004b) .
  11. ^ Oram (2011) .
  12. ^ Williams; Smyth; Kirby (1991) .
  13. ^ Hudson, BT (1998b) p. 151; Skene (1867) p. 10; Lat. 4126 (n.d.) fol. 29v.
  14. ^ Busse (2006b) ; Broun (2004b) ; Broun (2004d) ; Hudson, BT (1994) pp. 91, 164, 169; Williams; Smyth; Kirby (1991) pp. 91–92.
  15. ^ Broun (2004b) ; Broun (2004d) ; Hudson, BT (1994) pp. 91, 164, 169.
  16. ^ Broun (2004a) ; Broun (2004d) ; Driscoll (1998) p. 113.
  17. ^ Broun (2004d) ; Woolf (2001) ; Driscoll (1998) p. 113.
  18. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 6; Walker (2013) ch. 4; Woolf (2007) p. 192; Dumville (2000) p. 81; Hudson, BT (1998b) p. 159 n. 56; Hudson, BT (1994) p. 89.
  19. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 6; Walker (2013) ch. 4; Woolf (2009) p. 258; Downham (2007) p. 155; Woolf (2007) p. 192; Busse (2006b) ; Dumville (2000) p. 81; Driscoll (1998) p. 113 n. 55; Hudson, BT (1998b) p. 159 n. 56; Hudson, BT (1994) p. 89; Anderson (1922) pp. 475 n. 6, 484–485 n. 3.
  20. ^ Broun (2015e) ; Downham (2007) p. 155.
  21. ^ Hudson, BT (1994) p. 94.
  22. ^ Woolf (2009) p. 258; Woolf (2007) p. 206; Dumville (2000) p. 81; Driscoll (1998) p. 113 n. 55; Hudson, BT (1994) p. 94.
  23. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 7; Woolf (2009) p. 258; Woolf (2001) ; Williams (1997) p. 96 n. 33.
  24. ^ Woolf (2007) p. 206.
  25. ^ Downham (2007) p. 151; Busse (2006b) ; Dumville (2000) p. 81; Driscoll (1998) p. 113 n. 55; Hudson, BT (1998a) p. 66; Williams; Smyth; Kirby (1991) pp. 91–92.
  26. ^ Woolf (2007) pp. 199, 203; Duncan (2002) pp. 20–21; Hudson, BT (1998a) p. 66; Hudson, BT (1998b) p. 151; Skene (1867) p. 10.
  27. ^ The n in Culenri[n]g is expanded from a scribal abbreviation . Woolf (2007) p. 203.
  28. ^ Woolf (2007) p. 203; Busse (2006b) ; Duncan (2002) p. 20; Driscoll (1998) p. 113 n. 55; Hudson, BT (1998a) p. 66; Hudson, BT (1998b) p. 151 n. 34.
  29. ^ a b Broun (2015c) .
  30. ^ Woolf (2007) p. 203; Duncan (2002) pp. 20–21; Hudson, BT (1998a) p. 66; Hudson, BT (1998b) pp. 141, 151 n. 34.
  31. ^ a b Lynch (2001) ; Woolf (2000) p. 146 tab. 1; Hudson, BT (1994) p. 169.
  32. ^ Woolf (2000) p. 146 tab. 1.
  33. ^ Broun (2001) .
  34. ^ Clancy (2006a) ; Broun (2001) ; Woolf (2001) ; Woolf (2000) p. 152.
  35. ^ McGuigan (2015) p. 274.
  36. ^ Broun (2015e) ; Walker (2013) ch. 4; Broun (2004d) ; Duncan (2002) p. 20; Broun (2001) .
  37. ^ Duncan (2002) p. 20; Dumville (2000) p. 81.
  38. ^ a b Duncan (2002) p. 20.
  39. ^ The Annals of Ulster (2012) § 967.1; The Annals of Ulster (2008) § 967.1; Bodleian Library MS. Rawl. B. 489 (n.d.) .
  40. ^ Walker (2013) ch. 4; Woolf (2009) p. 258; Broun (2004c) ; Broun (2004d) .
  41. ^ Woolf (2007) p. 257; Broun (2004c) ; Lynch (2001) ; Bannerman (1998) .
  42. ^ Hudson, BT (1994) pp. 91, 174 n. 10; Skene (1872) pp. 160–161; Skene (1871) pp. 168–169.
  43. ^ Walker (2013) ch. 4; Hudson, BT (1996) pp. 49 § 164, 88 § 164; Hudson, BT (1994) pp. 91–92; Anderson (1930) p. 47 § 162; Anderson (1922) p. 474; Skene (1867) p. 95.
  44. ^ Broun (2004c) .
  45. ^ Broun (2015d) ; Broun (2004c) ; Hudson, BT (1994) pp. 91–92.
  46. ^ Woolf (2000) p. 157.
  47. ^ Walker (2013) chs. 2, 4; Clarkson (2012) ch. 10; Charles-Edwards (2008) p. 183; Woolf (2007) pp. 199, 201–202; Duncan (2002) p. 20; Dumville (2000) p. 77; Woolf (2000) pp. 260–261; Hudson, BT (1998b) pp. 145, 151, 159; Hudson, BT (1994) p. 92; Anderson (1922) pp. 472–473; Skene (1867) p. 10.
  48. ^ Woolf (2007) pp. 92, 199–200, 202; Duncan (2002) p. 20; Anderson (1922) pp. 472–473, 472 nn. 5–6; Skene (1867) p. 10.
  49. ^ Woolf (2007) p. 202.
  50. ^ Clarkson (2012) ch. 9; Charles-Edwards (2006) vol. 1 p. 212 n. 3; Woolf (2000) pp. 260–261.
  51. ^ Hudson, BT (1998a) p. 66; Hudson, BT (1996) pp. 49 § 164, 88 § 164; Anderson (1930) p. 47 § 162; Anderson (1922) p. 474; Skene (1867) p. 95.
  52. ^ Walker (2013) ch. 2; Woolf (2007) p. 202; Broun (2004b) ; Broun (2004c) ; Hudson, BT (1994) p. 92.
  53. ^ Clarkson (2012) ch. 1; Woolf (2007) p. 202; Hudson, BT (1994) p. 92.
  54. ^ Walker (2013) ch. 4; The Annals of Ulster (2012) § 965.4; The Annals of Ulster (2008) § 965.4; Woolf (2007) p. 202; Dumville (2000) p. 77; Hudson, BT (1994) p. 92; Anderson (1922) p. 471.
  55. ^ McGuigan (2015) p. 275; Walker (2013) ch. 4; Woolf (2007) pp. 199, 202; Duncan (2002) p. 20; Dumville (2000) p. 77; Hudson, BT (1998b) pp. 151, 159; Hudson, BT (1996) p. 88 n. 99; Hudson, BT (1994) p. 92; Anderson (1922) pp. 472–473; Skene (1867) p. 10.
  56. ^ McGuigan (2015) p. 275; Walker (2013) ch. 4; The Annals of Ulster (2012) § 967.1; Walker (2013) ch. 4; The Annals of Ulster (2008) § 967.1; Woolf (2007) pp. 196, 200, 202; Duncan (2002) p. 21; Hudson, BT (1994) p. 92; Anderson (1922) p. 472.
  57. ^ a b c Duncan (2002) p. 21.
  58. ^ Hudson, BT (1998b) pp. 159–160 n. 64; Amours (1906) pp. 192–195; Laing (1872) pp. 92–93.
  59. ^ Hudson, BT (1998b) pp. 159–160 n. 64; Hudson, BT (1994) p. 92; Skene (1872) pp. 160–161; Skene (1871) pp. 168–169.
  60. ^ Woolf (2007) p. 203; Hudson, BT (1994) p. 92; Anderson (1922) p. 473 n. 3; Skene (1872) pp. 160–161; Skene (1871) pp. 168–169.
  61. ^ Woolf (2007) p. 203, 203 n. 38.
  62. ^ Duncan (2002) p. 21; Hudson, BT (1994) p. 92; Anderson (1922) p. 473 n. 3.
  63. ^ Hudson, B (2014) pp. 177–178; Walker (2013) ch. 4; Clarkson (2012) ch. 9; Broun (2004c) ; Foster (2004) p. 111; Sellar (1993) pp. 112–114; Duncan (1984) p. 140.
  64. ^ Foster (2004) p. 111; Duncan (2002) p. 21; Sellar (1993) pp. 112–113; Duncan (1984) p. 140.
  65. ^ Walker (2013) ch. 4; Woolf (2007) p. 200.
  66. ^ Woolf (2009) p. 258; Koch (2006) ; Duncan (2002) p. 21; Bannerman (1998) p. 21.
  67. ^ a b Broun (2015d) ; Hudson, BT (1994) p. 92.
  68. ^ a b The Annals of Tigernach (2010) § 977.4; Annals of Tigernach (2005) § 977.4; Bodleian Library MS. Rawl. B. 488 (n.d.) .
  69. ^ a b Duncan (2002) pp. 21–22; Hudson, BT (1994) p. 93.
  70. ^ Walker (2013) ch. 4; Monarchs of Scotland (842–1707) (2011) ; Busse (2006b) ; Hudson, BT (1994) p. 163 tab. 1; Williams; Smyth; Kirby (1991) pp. 91–92.
  71. ^ a b Walker (2013) ch. 4.
  72. ^ Clarkson (2010) ch. 9; Woolf (2007) pp. 199, 204; Davidson (2002) p. 147, 147 n. 165; Hudson, BT (1998b) pp. 151, 160; Hudson, BT (1996) p. 88 n. 100; Hudson, BT (1994) p. 93; Anderson (1922) p. 475; Skene (1867) p. 10.
  73. ^ McGuigan (2015) p. 275; Clarkson (2014) ch. 7, 7 n. 5; Charles-Edwards (2013) p. 544 n. 42; Walker (2013) ch. 4 ¶ 24; The Annals of Ulster (2012) § 971.1; Clarkson (2010) ch. 9; The Annals of Ulster (2008) § 971.1; Woolf (2007) pp. 196, 204; Davidson (2002) p. 147, 147 n. 165; Hudson, BT (1996) p. 213; Hudson, BT (1994) p. 93; Anderson (1922) p. 475.
  74. ^ Chronicon Scotorum (2012) § 971; Chronicon Scotorum (2010) § 971; Woolf (2009) p. 258; Woolf (2007) p. 204; Hudson, BT (1994) p. 93; Anderson (1922) p. 475.
  75. ^ McGuigan (2015) p. 148, 148 n. 488; Clarkson (2014) ch. 7; Clarkson (2010) ch. 9; Hicks (2003) p. 40; Macquarrie (1998) p. 16, 16 n. 3; Barrow (1973) p. 152; Anderson (1922) p. 476; Skene (1867) p. 151.
  76. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 7; Clarkson (2010) ch. 9; Hicks (2003) p. 40; Macquarrie (1998) p. 16 n. 3; Hudson, BT (1996) p. 213; Anderson (1922) p. 476 n. 2.
  77. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 7; Hicks (2003) pp. 40–41; Anderson (1922) p. 476, 476 n. 4; Stevenson (1835) p. 226.
  78. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 7; Clarkson (2010) ch. 9; Hicks (2003) pp. 40–41.
  79. ^ a b c Clarkson (2010) ch. 9.
  80. ^ McGuigan (2015) p. 148 n. 488; Clarkson (2014) ch. 7; Macquarrie (1998) p. 16 n. 3; Barrow (1973) p. 152, 152 n. 33.
  81. ^ Hicks (2003) p. 40.
  82. ^ Hudson, BT (1998b) p. 160 n. 71; Macquarrie (1998) p. 16; Hudson, BT (1996) pp. 49 § 168, 88 § 168, 213–214; Hudson, BT (1994) p. 93; Anderson (1930) p. 48 § 166; Anderson (1922) p. 477; Skene (1867) pp. 95–96.
  83. ^ Clarkson (2010) ch. 9; Macquarrie (1998) p. 16; Anderson (1922) p. 476, 476 n. 1; Skene (1867) p. 151.
  84. ^ Broun (2005) pp. 87–88 n. 37; Skene (1867) p. 179.
  85. ^ Clarkson (2010) ch. 9; Woolf (2007) p. 204; Macquarrie (2004) ; Anderson (1922) p. 476; Stevenson (1835) p. 226.
  86. ^ Hudson, BT (1994) pp. 93, 174 n. 10; Skene (1872) pp. 161–162; Skene (1871) pp. 169–170.
  87. ^ Anderson (1922) p. 476; Stevenson (1835) p. 226; Cotton MS Faustina B IX (n.d.) .
  88. ^ Broun (2015c) ; Clarkson (2014) ch. 7; Walker (2013) ch. 4; Clarkson (2012) ch. 9; Oram (2011) chs. 2, 5; Clarkson (2010) ch. 9; Busse (2006c) ; Broun (2004f) p. 135; Macquarrie (2004) ; Macquarrie (1998) pp. 6, 16; Williams; Smyth; Kirby (1991) pp. 92, 104.
  89. ^ Macquarrie (2004) ; Thornton (2001) p. 67 n. 66.
  90. ^ Macquarrie (2004) .
  91. ^ Woolf (2009) p. 258; Woolf (2007) p. 205; Hudson, BT (1996) pp. 213–214.
  92. ^ Woolf (2007) p. 205.
  93. ^ Woolf (2007) p. 205 n. 40.
  94. ^ Walker (2013) ch. 4; Hudson, BT (1998b) pp. 151, 159; Anderson (1922) p. 468; Skene (1867) p. 10.
  95. ^ Walker (2013) ch. 4; Woolf (2009) p. 258; Woolf (2007) p. 205; Hudson, BT (1998b) pp. 151, 161; Anderson (1922) pp. 512–513; Skene (1867) p. 10.
  96. ^ Book of Leinster (2015) § Genelach rig Alban; Duncan (2002) p. 21; Hudson, BT (1994) p. 94.
  97. ^ The Annals of Tigernach (2010) § 977.4; Annals of Tigernach (2005) § 977.4; Duncan (2002) p. 21; Anderson (1922) p. 484.
  98. ^ Walker (2013) ch. 4; The Annals of Ulster (2012) § 977.4; Dumville (2000) p. 77; Woolf (2009) p. 258; The Annals of Ulster (2008) § 977.4; Woolf (2007) pp. 196, 205; Duncan (2002) p. 21; Hudson, BT (1994) p. 93; Anderson (1922) pp. 484–485 n. 3, 485 n. 4.
  99. ^ Broun (2015f) ; Walker (2013) ch. 4; Broun (2004b) ; Broun (2004e) ; Duncan (2002) p. 21.
  100. ^ Walker (2013) ch. 4; Duncan (2002) p. 21.
  101. ^ The Annals of Ulster (2012) § 977.4; The Annals of Ulster (2008) § 977.4; Duncan (2002) p. 21 n. 45; Anderson (1922) p. 485 n. 4.
  102. ^ Duncan (2002) p. 22.
  103. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 7.
  104. ^ Walker (2013) ch. 4; Hudson, BT (1994) p. 93.
  105. ^ Woolf (2007) pp. 205–206.
  106. ^ Clarkson (2014) ch. 7; Walker (2013) ch. 4 ¶ 25; Woolf (2009) p. 259; Busse (2006a) ; Clarkson (2010) ch. 9; Broun (2004e) .
  107. ^ Walker (2013) ch. 4 ¶ 25; Woolf (2009) p. 259.
  108. ^ Walker (2013) ch. 4 ¶ 25.
  109. ^ Clarkson (2010) ch. 9; Broun (2004e) .
  110. ^ McGuigan (2015) p. 140; Clarkson (2012) ch. 9; Clarkson (2010) ch. 9.
  111. ^ The Annals of Tigernach (2010) § 997.1; Annals of Tigernach (2005) § 997.1; Bodleian Library MS. Rawl. B. 488 (n.d.) .
  112. ^ Hudson, BT (1994) p. 91.
  113. ^ Hudson, BT (1996) pp. 49 § 168, 88 § 168, 88 n. 100; Hudson, BT (1994) p. 93; Anderson (1930) p. 48 § 166; Anderson (1922) p. 477; Skene (1867) p. 95.
  114. ^ Broun (2004b) ; Skene (1872) pp. 161–162; Skene (1871) pp. 169–170.
  115. ^ Broun (2004e) .
  116. ^ Broun (2015b) ; Oram (2011) ch. 5; Woolf (2009) p. 260; Busse (2006a) ; Broun (2004b) ; Hudson, BT (1994) pp. 104–105.
  117. ^ a b Woolf (2009) p. 260.
  118. ^ Broun (2004b) .
  119. ^ Broun (2015b) ; Broun (2015g) ; McGuigan (2015) pp. 160, 274; Clancy (2006b) ; Broun (2004b) ; Hudson, BT (1994) pp. 104–105.
  120. ^ Broun (2015h) p. 50 n. 193; Jackson (2008) pp. 33–34, 42–43, 49–50; Woolf (2007) p. 345; Ross, AD (2003) p. 143; Woolf (2000) p. 158.
  121. ^ Jackson (2008) p. 43; Woolf (2000) p. 158.
  122. ^ Woolf (2000) p. 158.
  123. ^ Jackson (1972) pp. 33–34, 42, 48–49; Woolf (2000) p. 158.
  124. ^ McGuigan (2015) p. 275; Woolf (2000) pp. 146 tab. 1, 158.
  125. ^ Woolf (2000) p. 158; Ross, AD (2003) p. 143.
  126. ^ The Annals of Ulster (2012) § 971.1; The Annals of Ulster (2008) § 971.1; Bodleian Library MS. Rawl. B. 489 (n.d.) .
  127. ^ Woolf (2009) pp. 251–252; Broun (2007) p. 72; Woolf (2007) p. 340.
  128. ^ Broun (2015a) pp. 120, 122–123; Woolf (2009) p. 252.
  129. ^ McGuigan (2015) p. 274; Woolf (2009) p. 258; Broun (2001) ; Woolf (2007) pp. 223–224; Woolf (2000) pp. 152–154.
  130. ^ McGuigan (2015) p. 274; Woolf (2007) pp. 223–224; Woolf (2000) pp. 153–154.
  131. ^ Woolf (2007) p. 224; Ross, AD (2003) pp. 140–141; Woolf (2000) p. 154.
  132. ^ McGuigan (2015) pp. 274–275; Woolf (2007) p. 224; Ross, AD (2003) pp. 140–141; Woolf (2000) pp. 154–157.
  133. ^ Charles-Edwards (2008) p. 183; Woolf (2007) pp. 240–241; Ross, AD (2003) p. 141; Woolf (2000) pp. 154–155.
  134. ^ Woolf (2000) p. 154.
  135. ^ Woolf (2000) p. 155.
  136. ^ Taylor (2016) p. 8; McGuigan (2015) pp. 274–275; Ross, A (2008) ; Woolf (2007) p. 224; Woolf (2000) pp. 154–157.
  137. ^ Woolf (2000) p. 157; Hudson, BT (1994) pp. 150–158; Anderson (1922) p. 452; Skene (1867) p. 10.
  138. ^ Ross, AD (2003) p. 143; Woolf (2000) p. 157; Skene (1872) pp. 159–161; Skene (1871) pp. 167–169.
  139. ^ Charles-Edwards (2008) p. 183; Woolf (2000) p. 157.
  140. ^ a b McGuigan (2015) pp. 256, 275–276.
  141. ^ McGuigan (2015) pp. 256, 275–276; Charles-Edwards (2008) p. 183; Hudson, BT (1996) pp. 47 § 47, 87 § 156, 87 n. 95; Anderson (1930) p. 45 § 154; Anderson (1922) p. 448; Skene (1867) pp. 92–93.
  142. ^ Charles-Edwards (2008) p. 183; Hudson, BT (1996) p. 88, 88 n. 98, 88 n. 100; Anderson (1922) pp. 471, 477; Skene (1867) pp. 94–95.
  143. ^ Charles-Edwards (2008) p. 183; Hudson, BT (1998b) pp. 151, 159; Anderson (1922) pp. 472–473; Skene (1867) p. 10.

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