Military campaign (1649?53)
Cromwellian conquest of Ireland
|
---|
Part of the
Irish Confederate Wars
|
Oliver Cromwell, who landed in Ireland in 1649 to re-conquer the country on behalf of the English Parliament. He left in 1650, having taken eastern and southern Ireland, passing his command to
Henry Ireton
.
|
Date
| 15 August 1649 ? 27 September 1653
|
---|
Location
| Ireland
|
---|
Result
|
English Parliamentarian victory
|
---|
|
Belligerents
|
---|
Irish Catholic Confederation
English Royalists
|
English Parliamentarian
Protestant colonists
|
Commanders and leaders
|
---|
James Butler, Marquess of Ormonde
(Aug. 1649 ? Dec. 1650)
Ulick Burke, Earl of Clanricarde
(Dec. 1650 ? Apr. 1653)
|
Oliver Cromwell
(Aug. 1649 ? May 1650)
Henry Ireton
(May 1650 ? Nov. 1651)
Charles Fleetwood
(Nov. 1651 ? Apr. 1653)
|
Strength
|
---|
Up to 60,000 incl. guerrilla fighters, but only around 20,000 at any one time
|
~30,000 New Model Army troops,
~10,000 troops raised in Ireland or based there before campaign
|
Casualties and losses
|
---|
Unknown;
15,000?20,000 battlefield casualties
~50,000 deported as
indentured labourers
[1]
|
8,000 New Model Army soldiers killed,
~7,000 locally raised soldiers killed
|
200,000?600,000 civilian casualties (from war-related violence, famine or disease)
[3]
|
The
Cromwellian conquest of Ireland
or
Cromwellian war in Ireland
(1649?1653) was the re-conquest of Ireland by the forces of the
English Parliament
, led by
Oliver Cromwell
, during the
Wars of the Three Kingdoms
. Cromwell invaded Ireland with the
New Model Army
on behalf of England's
Rump Parliament
in August 1649.
Following the
Irish Rebellion of 1641
, most of Ireland came under the control of the
Irish Catholic Confederation
. In early 1649, the Confederates allied with the English
Royalists
, who had been defeated by the
Parliamentarians
in the
English Civil War
. By May 1652, Cromwell's Parliamentarian army had defeated the Confederate and Royalist coalition in Ireland and occupied the country, ending the
Irish Confederate Wars
(or Eleven Years' War). However, guerrilla warfare continued for a further year. As punishment for the rebellion of 1641, Cromwell passed a series of
Penal Laws
against
Roman Catholics
(the vast majority of the population) and
confiscated large amounts of their land
, which was
given to British settlers
. The remaining Catholic landowners were transplanted to
Connacht
. The
Act of Settlement 1652
formalised the change in land ownership. Catholics were barred from the Irish Parliament altogether, forbidden to live in towns and from marrying Protestants.
The Parliamentarian conquest was brutal, and Cromwell remains a deeply reviled figure in Ireland.
[4]
The extent to which Cromwell, who was in direct command for the first year of the campaign, was responsible for the atrocities is debated to this day. Some authors
[5]
have argued that the actions of Cromwell were within what many empires at the time viewed as accepted rules of war, while many academic historians disagree.
[6]
The impact of the war on the Irish population was unquestionably severe and although there is no consensus as to the magnitude of the loss of life, most modern estimates generally fall in between 15 and 50% of the native population. The war resulted in famine,
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
which was worsened by an outbreak of
bubonic plague
. Older estimates of the drop in the Irish population resulting from the Parliamentarian campaign reach as high as 83 percent.
[11]
The Parliamentarians also
transported
about 50,000 people as
indentured labourers
to the English colonies in
North America
and the
Caribbean
.
[1]
Some estimates cover population losses over the course of the Conquest Period (1649?52) only,
[12]
while others cover the period of the Conquest to 1653 and the period of the Cromwellian Settlement from August 1652 to 1659 together.
Background
[
edit
]
The English Rump Parliament, victorious in the English Civil War, and having executed
King Charles
in January 1649, had several reasons for sending the New Model Army to Ireland in 1649.
The first and most pressing reason was an alliance signed in 1649 between the
Irish Confederate Catholics
,
Charles II
, proclaimed King of Ireland in January 1649, and the English Royalists. This allowed for Royalist troops to be sent to Ireland and put the Irish Confederate Catholic troops under the command of Royalist officers led by
James Butler, Earl of Ormonde
. Their aim was to invade England and restore the monarchy there. This was a threat which the new
English Commonwealth
could not afford to ignore.
Secondly, Parliament also had a longstanding commitment to re-conquer Ireland dating back to the Irish Rebellion of 1641. Even if the Irish Confederates had not allied themselves with the Royalists, it is likely that the English Parliament would have eventually tried to invade the country to crush Catholic power there. They had sent Parliamentary forces to Ireland throughout the Wars of the Three Kingdoms (most of them under
Michael Jones
in 1647). They viewed Ireland as part of the territory governed by right by the Kingdom of England and only temporarily out of its control since the Rebellion of 1641. Many Parliamentarians wished to punish the Irish for alleged atrocities supposedly committed against the mainly Scottish Protestant settlers during the 1641 Uprising. Furthermore, some Irish towns (notably Wexford and Waterford) had acted as bases from which privateers had attacked English shipping throughout the 1640s.
[13]
In addition, the English Parliament had a financial imperative to invade Ireland to confiscate land there in order to repay its creditors. The Parliament had raised loans of £10 million under the
Adventurers' Act
to subdue Ireland since 1642, on the basis that its creditors would be repaid with land confiscated from Irish Catholic rebels. To repay these loans, it would be necessary to conquer Ireland and confiscate such land. The Parliamentarians also had internal political reasons to send forces to Ireland. Army mutinies at
Banbury
and
Bishopsgate
in April and May 1649 were unsettling the New Model Army, and the soldiers' demands would probably increase if they were left idle.
Finally, for some Parliamentarians, the war in Ireland was a religious war. Cromwell and much of his army were Puritans who considered all Roman Catholics to be heretics, and so for them the conquest was partly a crusade. The Irish Confederates had been supplied with arms and money by the Papacy and had welcomed the papal legate
Pierfrancesco Scarampi
and later the Papal Nuncio
Giovanni Battista Rinuccini
in 1643?49.
Battle of Rathmines and Cromwell's landing in Ireland
[
edit
]
By the end of the period, known as Confederate Ireland, in 1649 the only remaining Parliamentarian outpost in Ireland was in Dublin, under the command of Colonel Jones. A combined Royalist and Confederate force under the
Marquess of Ormonde
gathered at Rathmines, south of Dublin,
to take the city
and deprive the Parliamentarians of a port in which they could land. Jones, however,
launched a surprise attack
on the Royalists while they were deploying on 2 August, putting them to flight. Jones claimed to have killed around 4,000 Royalist or Confederate soldiers and taken 2,517 prisoners.
[14]
Oliver Cromwell called the battle "an astonishing mercy, so great and seasonable that we are like them that dreamed",
[15]
as it meant that he had a secure port at which he could land his army in Ireland, and that he retained the capital city. With Admiral
Robert Blake
blockading the remaining Royalist fleet under
Prince Rupert of the Rhine
in Kinsale, Cromwell landed on 15 August with thirty-five ships filled with troops and equipment.
Henry Ireton
landed two days later with a further seventy-seven ships.
[16]
Ormonde's troops retreated from around Dublin in disarray. They were badly demoralised by their unexpected defeat at Rathmines and were incapable of fighting another pitched battle in the short term. As a result, Ormonde hoped to hold the walled towns on Ireland's east coast to hold up the Cromwellian advance until the winter, when he hoped that "Colonel Hunger and Major Sickness" (i.e. hunger and disease) would deplete their ranks.
[17]
Siege of Drogheda
[
edit
]
Upon landing, Cromwell proceeded to take the other port cities on Ireland's east coast, to facilitate the efficient landing of supplies and reinforcements from England. The first town to fall was Drogheda, about 50 km north of Dublin. Drogheda was garrisoned by a regiment of 3,000 English Royalist and Irish Confederate soldiers, commanded by
Arthur Aston
. After a week-long siege, Cromwell's forces breached the walls protecting the town. Aston refused Cromwell's request that he surrender.
[18]
In the ensuing battle for the town, Cromwell ordered that no quarter be given,
[19]
and the majority of the garrison and Catholic priests were killed. Many civilians also died in the sack. Aston was beaten to death by the Roundheads with his own wooden leg.
[20]
The massacre of the garrison in Drogheda, including some after they had surrendered and some who had sheltered in a church, was received with horror in Ireland and is used today as an example of Cromwell's extreme cruelty.
[21]
Having taken Drogheda, Cromwell took most of his army south to secure the southeastern ports. He sent a detachment of 5,000 men north under
Robert Venables
to take eastern Ulster from the remnants of a Scottish
Covenanter
army that had landed there in 1642. They defeated the Scots at the
Battle of Lisnagarvey
(6 December 1649) and linked up with a Parliamentarian army composed of English settlers based around Derry in western Ulster, which was commanded by
Charles Coote
.
Wexford, Waterford and Duncannon
[
edit
]
The
New Model Army
then marched south to secure the ports of Wexford, Waterford and Duncannon. Wexford was the scene of another infamous atrocity: the
Sack of Wexford
, when Parliamentarian troops broke into the town while negotiations for its surrender were ongoing, and sacked it, killing about 2,000 soldiers and 1,500 townspeople and burning much of the town.
The Royalist commander Ormonde thought that the terror of Cromwell's army had a paralysing effect on his forces. Towns like New Ross and Carlow subsequently surrendered on terms when besieged by Cromwell's forces. On the other hand, the massacres of the defenders of Drogheda and Wexford prolonged resistance elsewhere, as they convinced many Irish Catholics that they would be killed even if they surrendered.
Such towns as Waterford, Duncannon, Clonmel, Limerick and Galway only surrendered after determined resistance. Cromwell was unable to take Waterford or Duncannon and the New Model Army had to retire to winter quarters, where many of its men died of disease, especially typhoid and dysentery. The port city of Waterford and Duncannon town eventually surrendered after prolonged sieges in 1650.
Clonmel and the conquest of Munster
[
edit
]
The following spring, Cromwell mopped up the remaining walled towns in Ireland's southeast?notably the Confederate capital of Kilkenny,
which surrendered on terms
. The New Model Army met its only serious reverse in Ireland at the
Siege of Clonmel
, where its attacks on the town's defences were repulsed at a cost of up to 2,000 men. The town nevertheless surrendered the following day.
Cromwell's treatment of Kilkenny and Clonmel is in contrast to that of
Drogheda
and
Wexford
. Despite the fact that his troops had suffered heavy casualties attacking the former two, Cromwell respected surrender terms which guaranteed the lives and property of the townspeople and the evacuation of armed Irish troops who were defending them. The change in attitude on the part of the Parliamentarian commander may have been a recognition that excessive cruelty was prolonging Irish resistance. However, in the case of Drogheda and Wexford no surrender agreement had been negotiated, and by the rules of continental
siege warfare
prevalent in the mid-17th century, this meant no quarter would be given; thus it can be argued that Cromwell's attitude had not changed.
Ormonde's Royalists still held most of
Munster
, but were outflanked by a mutiny of their own garrison in
Cork
. The British Protestant troops there had been fighting for the Parliament up to 1648 and resented fighting with the Confederates. Their mutiny handed Cork and most of Munster to Cromwell and they defeated the local Irish garrison at the
Battle of Macroom
. The Irish and Royalist forces retreated behind the
River Shannon
into
Connacht
or (in the case of the remaining Munster forces) into the fastness of
County Kerry
.
Collapse of the Royalist alliance
[
edit
]
In May 1650, Charles II repudiated his father's (Charles I's)
alliance
with the Irish Confederates in preference for an alliance with the Scottish Covenanters (see
Treaty of Breda
). This totally undermined Ormonde's position as head of a Royalist coalition in Ireland. Cromwell published generous surrender terms for Protestant Royalists in Ireland and many of them either capitulated or went over to the Parliamentarian side.
This left in the field only the remaining Irish Catholic armies and a few diehard English Royalists. From this point onwards, many Irish Catholics, including their bishops and clergy, questioned why they should accept Ormonde's leadership when his master, the King, had repudiated his alliance with them. Cromwell left Ireland in May 1650 to fight the
Third English Civil War
against the new Scottish?Royalist alliance. He passed his command onto Henry Ireton.
Scarrifholis and the destruction of the Ulster Army
[
edit
]
The most formidable force left to the Irish and Royalists was the 6,000 strong army of Ulster, formerly commanded by
Owen Roe O'Neill
, who died in 1649. However the army was now commanded by an inexperienced Catholic bishop named
Heber MacMahon
. The Ulster Army met a Parliamentarian army commanded by Charles Coote, at the
Battle of Scarrifholis
in County Donegal in June 1650. The Ulster army was routed and as many as 2,000 of its men were killed.
[23]
In addition, MacMahon and most of the Ulster Army's officers were either killed at the battle or captured and executed after it. This eliminated the last strong field army opposing the Parliamentarians in Ireland and secured for them the northern province of Ulster. Coote's army, despite suffering heavy losses at the
Siege of Charlemont
, the last Catholic stronghold in the north, was now free to march south and invade the west coast of Ireland.
Sieges of Limerick and Galway
[
edit
]
The Parliamentarians crossed the River Shannon into the western province of Connacht in October 1650. An Irish army under
Clanricarde
had attempted to stop them but this was surprised and routed at the
Battle of Meelick Island
. Ormonde was discredited by the constant stream of defeats for the Irish and Royalist forces and no longer had the confidence of the men he commanded, particularly the Irish Confederates. He fled for France in December 1650 and was replaced by an Irish nobleman Ulick Burke of Clanricarde as commander. The Irish and Royalist forces were penned into the area west of the
River Shannon
and placed their last hope on defending the strongly walled cities of
Limerick
and
Galway
on Ireland's west coast. These cities had built extensive modern defences and could not be taken by a straightforward assault as at Drogheda or Wexford. Ireton besieged Limerick while Charles Coote surrounded Galway, but they were unable to take the strongly fortified cities and instead blockaded them until a combination of hunger and disease forced them to surrender. An Irish force from
County Kerry
attempted to relieve Limerick from the south, but was intercepted and routed at the
Battle of Knocknaclashy
. Limerick fell in 1651 and Galway the following year. Disease however killed indiscriminately and Ireton, along with thousands of Parliamentarian troops, died of plague outside Limerick in 1651.
[24]
Guerrilla warfare, famine and plague
[
edit
]
The fall of
Galway
saw the end of organised resistance to the Cromwellian conquest, but fighting continued as small units of Irish troops launched guerrilla attacks on the Parliamentarians.
The guerrilla phase of the war had been going since late 1650 and at the end of 1651, despite the defeat of the main Irish or Royalist forces, there were still estimated to be 30,000 men in arms against the Parliamentarians. Tories (from the Irish word
torai
meaning "pursuer" or "outlaw") operated from difficult terrain such as the
Bog of Allen
, the
Wicklow Mountains
and the
drumlin
country in the north midlands, and within months made the countryside extremely dangerous for all except large parties of Parliamentarian troops. Ireton mounted a punitive expedition to the Wicklow mountains in 1650 to try to put down the tories there, but without success.
By early 1651, it was reported that no English supply convoys were safe if they travelled more than two miles outside a military base. In response, the Parliamentarians destroyed food supplies and forcibly evicted civilians who were thought to be helping the Tories.
John Hewson
systematically destroyed food stocks in counties Wicklow and
County Kildare
,
Hardress Waller
did likewise in the Burren in
County Clare
, as did Colonel Cook in
County Wexford
. The result was famine throughout much of Ireland, aggravated by an outbreak of
bubonic plague
.
[25]
As the
guerrilla war
ground on, the Parliamentarians, as of April 1651, designated areas such as
County Wicklow
and much of the south of the country as what would now be called free-fire zones, where anyone found would be, "taken slain and destroyed as enemies and their cattle and good shall be taken or spoiled as the goods of enemies".
[26]
This tactic had succeeded in the
Nine Years' War
.
This phase of the war was by far the most costly in terms of civilian loss of life. The combination of warfare, famine and plague caused a huge mortality among the Irish population.
William Petty
estimated (in the 1655?56
Down Survey
) that the death toll of the wars in Ireland since 1641 was over 618,000 people, or about 40% of the country's pre-war population. Of these, he estimated that over 400,000 were Catholics, 167,000 killed directly by war or famine, and the remainder by war-related disease.
[27]
Modern estimates put the toll at closer to 20%.
[28]
In addition, some fifty thousand Irish people, including prisoners of war, were sold as
indentured servants
under the English Commonwealth regime.
[1]
They were often sent to the English colonies in
North America
and the Caribbean where they subsequently comprised a substantial portion of certain Caribbean colony populations in the late 17th century.
[30]
In Barbados, some of their descendants are known
as Redlegs
.
Eventually, the guerrilla war was ended when the Parliamentarians published surrender terms in 1652 allowing Irish troops to go abroad to serve in foreign armies not at war with the Commonwealth of England. Most went to France or Spain. The largest Irish guerrilla forces under John Fitzpatrick (in Leinster, Edmund O'Dwyer (in Munster) and Edmund Daly (in Connacht) surrendered in 1652, under terms signed at
Kilkenny
in May of that year. However, up to 11,000 men, mostly in
Ulster
, were still thought to be in the field at the end of the year. The last Irish and Royalist forces (the remnants of the Confederate's Ulster Army, led by Philip O'Reilly) formally surrendered at
Cloughoughter
in
County Cavan
on 27 April 1653. The English Parliament then declared the Irish rebellion subdued on 27 September 1653. However, low-level guerrilla warfare continued for the remainder of the decade and was accompanied by widespread lawlessness. Undoubtedly some of the tories were simple
brigands
, whereas others were politically motivated. The Cromwellians distinguished in their rewards for information or capture of outlaws between "private tories" and "public tories".
[32]
The Cromwellian Settlement
[
edit
]
Cromwell imposed an extremely harsh settlement on the Irish Catholic population. This was because of his deep religious antipathy to the Catholic religion and to punish Irish Catholics for the rebellion of 1641, in particular the massacres of Protestant settlers in Ulster. Also he needed to raise money to pay off his army and to repay the London merchants who had subsidised the war under the Adventurers Act back in 1640.
[
citation needed
]
Anyone implicated in the rebellion of 1641 was executed. Those who participated in Confederate Ireland had all their land confiscated and thousands were transported to the West Indies as indentured labourers. Those Catholic landowners who had not taken part in the wars still had their land confiscated, although they were entitled to claim land in Connacht as compensation. In addition, no Catholics were allowed to live in towns. Irish soldiers who had fought in the Confederate and Royalist armies left the country in large numbers to find service in the armies of France and Spain?
William Petty
estimated their number at 54,000 men. The practice of Catholicism was banned and bounties were offered for the capture of priests, who were executed when found.
[
citation needed
]
The
Long Parliament
had passed the Adventurers Act in 1640 (the act received royal assent in 1642), under which those who lent money to Parliament for the subjugation of Ireland would be paid in confiscated land in Ireland. In addition, Parliamentarian soldiers who served in Ireland were entitled to an allotment of confiscated land there, in lieu of their wages, which the Parliament was unable to pay in full. As a result, many thousands of New Model Army veterans were settled in Ireland. Moreover, the pre-war Protestant settlers greatly increased their ownership of land (see also:
The Cromwellian Plantation
). Before the wars, Irish Catholics had owned 60% of the land in Ireland, whereas by the time of the
Stuart Restoration
, when compensations had been made to Catholic Royalists, they owned only 20% of it. During the Commonwealth period, Catholic landownership had fallen to 8%. Even after the Restoration of 1660, Catholics were barred from all public office, but not from the
Irish Parliament
.
[33]
Historical debate
[
edit
]
The Parliamentarian campaign in Ireland was the most ruthless of the Civil War period. In particular, Cromwell's actions at Drogheda and Wexford earned him a reputation for cruelty.
Cromwell's critics point to his response to a plea by Catholic Bishops to the Irish Catholic people to resist him in which he states that although his intention was not to "massacre, banish and destroy the Catholic inhabitants", if they did resist "I hope to be free from the misery and desolation, blood and ruin that shall befall them, and shall rejoice to exercise the utmost severity against them".
[a]
Tom Reilly, an amateur historian not taken seriously by most academics,
[35]
argues in
Cromwell, an Honourable Enemy
that what happened at Drogheda was not unusually severe by the standards of 17th century siege warfare.
[36]
In
Cromwell was Framed
(2014), he also claims that civilians were not targeted.
[37]
John Morrill
commented, "A major attempt at rehabilitation was attempted by Tom Reilly, Cromwell: An Honourable Enemy (London, 1999) but this has been largely rejected by other scholars."
[38]
Morrill himself argued, that what happened at Drogheda, "was without straightforward parallel in 17th century British or Irish history... So the Drogheda massacre does stand out for its mercilessness, for its combination of ruthlessness and calculation, for its combination of hot- and cold-bloodiness".
[39]
Moreover, historians critical of Cromwell point out that at the time the killings at Drogheda and Wexford were considered atrocities. They cite such sources as
Edmund Ludlow
, the Parliamentarian commander in Ireland after Ireton's death, who wrote that the tactics used by Cromwell at Drogheda showed "extraordinary severity".
Cromwell's actions in Ireland occurred in the context of a mutually cruel war. In 1641?42 Irish insurgents in Ulster killed some 4,000 Protestant settlers who had settled on land confiscated from their former Catholic owners. These events were magnified in Protestant propaganda as an attempt by Irish Catholics to exterminate the English Protestant settlers in Ireland, with English Parliamentarian pamphlets claiming that over 200,000 Protestants had died. In turn, this was used as justification by English Parliamentary and Scottish Covenant forces to take vengeance on the Irish Catholic population. A Parliamentary tract of 1655 argued that, "the whole Irish nation, consisting of gentry, clergy and commonality are engaged as one nation in this quarrel, to root out and extirpate all English Protestants from amongst them".
[40]
Atrocities were subsequently committed by all sides. When
Murrough O'Brien
, the Earl of Inchiquin and Parliamentarian commander in Cork,
took Cashel
in 1647, he slaughtered the garrison and Catholic clergy there (including
Theobald Stapleton
), earning the nickname "Murrough of the Burnings". Inchiquin switched allegiances in 1648, becoming a commander of the Royalist forces. After such battles as
Dungans Hill
and
Scarrifholis
, English Parliamentarian forces executed thousands of their Irish Catholic prisoners. Similarly, when the Confederate Catholic general
Thomas Preston
took Maynooth in 1647, he hanged its Catholic defenders as
apostates
.
Seen in this light, some have argued that the severe conduct of the Parliamentarian campaign of 1649?53 appears unexceptional.
[41]
Nevertheless, the 1649?53 campaign remains notorious in Irish popular memory as it was responsible for a huge death toll among the Irish population. The main reason for this was the counter-guerrilla tactics used by such commanders as Henry Ireton,
John Hewson
and Edmund Ludlow against the Catholic population from 1650, when large areas of the country still resisted the Parliamentary Army. These tactics included the wholesale burning of crops, forced population movement, and killing of civilians.
Total excess deaths for the entire period of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms in Ireland was estimated by
Sir William Petty
, the 17th century economist, to be 600,000 out of a total Irish population of 1,400,000 in 1641.
[42]
[43]
[44]
One modern estimate estimated that at least 200,000 were killed out of a population of allegedly 2 million.
[
citation needed
]
In addition, the whole post-war Cromwellian settlement of Ireland has been characterised by historians such as Mark Levene and
Alan Axelrod
as
ethnic cleansing
, in that it sought to remove Irish Catholics from the eastern part of the country, others such as the historical writer
Tim Pat Coogan
have described the actions of Cromwell and his subordinates as genocide.
[45]
The aftermath of the Cromwellian campaign and settlement saw extensive dispossession of landowners who were Catholic, and a huge drop in population. In the event, the much larger number of surviving poorer Catholics were not moved westwards; most of them had to fend for themselves by working for the new landowners.
Long-term results
[
edit
]
The Cromwellian conquest completed the British colonisation of Ireland, which was merged into the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland in 1653?59. It destroyed the native Irish Catholic land-owning classes and replaced them with colonists with a British identity. The bitterness caused by the Cromwellian settlement was a powerful source of
Irish nationalism
from the 17th century onwards.
After the Stuart Restoration in 1660,
Charles II of England
restored about a third of the confiscated land to the former landlords in the
Act of Settlement 1662
, but not all, as he needed political support from former parliamentarians in England. A generation later, during the
Glorious Revolution
, many of the Irish Catholic landed class tried to reverse the remaining Cromwellian settlement in the
Williamite War in Ireland
(1689?91), where they fought en masse for the
Jacobites
. They were defeated once again, and many lost land that had been regranted after 1662. As a result, Irish and English Catholics did not become full political citizens of the British state again until
1829
and were legally barred from buying valuable interests in land until the
Papists Act 1778
.
The Cromwellian government also contributed to the decline and eventual extinction of
wolves in Ireland
, through such methods as
deforestation
and anti-wolf legislation, the latter including bounties paid out for killing wolves.
[46]
[47]
See also
[
edit
]
Notes
[
edit
]
- ^
The wording of this version is taken from a London edition,
Thomas Carlyle
notes that another contemporary version copied from the original Cork edition, ends with the phrase "and shall rejoice to act severity against them" and that he states "is probably the true reading" (
Carlyle 2010
, p. 132).
References
[
edit
]
- ^
a
b
c
O'Callaghan 2000
, p. 85.
- ^
Micheal O Siochru/RTE ONE, Cromwell in Ireland Part 2. Broadcast 16 September 2008.
- ^
"Of all these doings in Cromwell's Irish Chapter, each of us may say what he will. Yet to everyone it will at least be intelligible how his name came to be hated in the tenacious heart of Ireland". John Morley, Biography of Oliver Cromwell. Page 298. 1900 and 2001.
ISBN
978-1-4212-6707-4
.; "Cromwell is still a hate figure in Ireland today because of the brutal effectiveness of his campaigns in Ireland. Of course, his victories in Ireland made him a hero in Protestant England."
"Archived copy"
. Archived from
the original
on 28 September 2007
. Retrieved
25 May
2009
.
{{
cite web
}}
: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
link
)
British National Archives web site. Accessed March 2007;
"1649-52: Cromwell's conquest of Ireland"
. Archived from
the original
on 11 December 2004
. Retrieved
17 January
2006
.
From a history site dedicated to the English Civil War. "... making Cromwell's name into one of the most hated in Irish history". Accessed March 2007. Site currently offline. WayBack Machine holds archive here
- ^
Philip McKeiver in his, 2007,
A New History of Cromwell's Irish Campaign
ISBN
978-0-9554663-0-4
and Tom Reilly, 1999,
Cromwell: An Honourable Enemy
ISBN
0-86322-250-1
- ^
Coyle, Eugene (Winter 1999).
"Cromwell: An Honourable Enemy, Tom Reilly [review of]"
. Book Reviews.
History Ireland
.
7
(4)
. Retrieved
10 October
2014
.
- ^
Prendergast, John Patrick (2 January 1868).
The Cromwellian settlement of Ireland
. P.M. Haverty – via Internet Archive.
- ^
"Inventory of Conflict and Environment (ICE), Cromwell's Famine"
.
mandalaprojects.com
.
- ^
"Historical Context - The Down Survey Project"
.
downsurvey.tcd.ie
.
- ^
Padraig Lenihan, Confederate Catholics at War (2001) p112, 'As late as 1650, provisions were cheaper in Ireland than in England; the famine of 1651 onwards was a man made response to stubborn guerrilla warfare. Collective reprisals against the civilian population included forcing them out of designated no man's lands and the systematic destruction of foodstuffs'.
- ^
15?25%
- Padraig Lenihan, Confederate Catholics at War, p112
50%:
83%:
- ^
"Down Survey"
. Trinity College Dublin Department of History
. Retrieved
19 March
2016
.
- ^
O Siochru,
God's Executioner
, pp. 69 & 96.
- ^
McKeiver,
A New History of Cromwell's Irish Campaign
, p. 59
- ^
Antonia Fraser,
Cromwell, our Chief of Men
(1973), p. 324
- ^
Fraser,
Cromwell our Chief of Men
, p. 326
- ^
Padraig Lenihan,
Confederate Catholics at War
, p. 113
- ^
Reilly, Tom (1999).
Cromwell, An Honourable Enemy
. London: Phoenix Press. p.
61
.
ISBN
1-84212-080-8
.
- ^
Reilly, Tom (1999).
Cromwell, An Honourable Enemy
. London: Phoenix Press. p.
71
.
ISBN
1-84212-080-8
.
- ^
Fraser, pp. 336?339.
Kenyon & Ohlmeyer 1998
, p. 98.
- ^
O Siochru,
God's Executioner
, pp. 82?91. Faber & Faber (2008)
- ^
McKeiver,
A New History of Cromwell's Irish Campaign
, p. 167.
- ^
Micheal O Siochru,
God's Executioner, Oliver Cromwell and Conquest of Ireland
, p. 187.
- ^
Lenihan, p. 122
- ^
James Scott Wheeler, Cromwell in Ireland
- ^
Kenyon & Ohlmeyer 1998
, p. 278. Scott Wheeler, Cromwell in Ireland.
- ^
"From Catastrophe to Baby Boom ? Population Change in Early Modern Ireland 1641?1741"
. 22 January 2014.
- ^
Mahoney, Michael.
"Irish indentured labour in the Caribbean"
.
UK National Archive
. Retrieved
13 March
2016
.
- ^
Prendergast, John Patrick (1868).
The Cromwellian Settlement of Ireland
. P M Haverty New York. pp.
178
, 187
. Retrieved
14 March
2016
.
- ^
Lenihan, p. 111
- ^
Carroll, Rory (26 November 2022).
"Irish amateur historian on lonely mission to save 'bogeyman' Cromwell from genocide charges"
.
The Observer
.
- ^
Reilly, Dingle 1999
[
page needed
]
- ^
"Opinion: 'Cromwell was Framed'
"
. 13 August 2014.
- ^
John Morrill. "Rewriting Cromwell: A Case of Deafening Silences."
Canadian Journal of History.
Dec 2003: 19.
- ^
Morrill pp. 263?265
- ^
Richard Lawrence, The Interest of England in Irish transplantation (1655), quoted in Lenihan, Confederate Catholics at War, p. 111.
- ^
John Morrill. "Rewriting Cromwell: A Case of Deafening Silences." Canadian Journal of History. December 2003: 19.
- ^
Faolain, Turlough (1983).
Blood on the Harp
. Whitston Publishing Company. p. 191.
ISBN
9780878752751
. Retrieved
15 October
2018
.
- ^
O' Connell, Daniel (1828).
A collection of speeches spoken by ... on subjects connected with the catholic question
. p. 317
. Retrieved
15 October
2018
.
- ^
Patrick, Brantlinger (2014).
Dark Vanishings: Discourse on the Extinction of Primitive Races, 1800?1930
. Cornell University Press.
ISBN
9780801468674
. Retrieved
15 October
2018
.
- ^
- Albert Breton (Editor, 1995).
Nationalism and Rationality
. Cambridge University Press. p. 248. "Oliver Cromwell offered Irish Catholics a choice between genocide and forced mass population transfer".
- Ukrainian Quarterly
. Ukrainian Society of America, 1944. "Therefore, we are entitled to accuse the England of Oliver Cromwell of the genocide of the Irish civilian population".
- David Norbrook (2000).
Writing the English Republic: Poetry, Rhetoric and Politics, 1627?1660
. Cambridge University Press. 2000. In interpreting Andrew Marvell's contemporarily expressed views on Cromwell Norbrook says; "He (Cromwell) laid the foundation for a ruthless programme of resettling the Irish Catholics which amounted to large scale ethnic cleansing".
- Frances Stewart
Archived
16 December 2008 at the
Wayback Machine
(2000).
War and Underdevelopment: Economic and Social Consequences of Conflict v. 1
(Queen Elizabeth House Series in Development Studies), Oxford University Press. p. 51. "Faced with the prospect of an Irish alliance with Charles II, Cromwell carried out a series of massacres to subdue the Irish. Then, once Cromwell had returned to England, the English Commissary, General Henry Ireton, adopted a deliberate policy of crop burning and starvation, which was responsible for the majority of an estimated 600,000 deaths out of a total Irish population of 1,400,000."
- Alan Axelrod
(2002).
Profiles in Leadership
, Prentice-Hall. 2002. p. 122. "As a leader Cromwell was entirely unyielding. He was willing to act on his beliefs, even if this meant killing the king and perpetrating, against the Irish, something very nearly approaching genocide".
- Tim Pat Coogan
(2002).
The Troubles: Ireland's Ordeal and the Search for Peace
.
ISBN
978-0-312-29418-2
. p. 6. "The massacres by Catholics of Protestants, which occurred in the religious wars of the 1640s, were magnified for propagandist purposes to justify Cromwell's subsequent genocide."
- Peter Berresford Ellis (2002).
Eyewitness to Irish History
, John Wiley & Sons.
ISBN
978-0-471-26633-4
. p. 108. "It was to be the justification for Cromwell's genocidal campaign and settlement."
- John Morrill
(2003). "Rewriting Cromwell: A Case of Deafening Silences",
Canadian Journal of History
. December 2003. "Of course, this has never been the Irish view of Cromwell.
Most Irish remember him as the man responsible for the mass slaughter of civilians at Drogheda and Wexford and as the agent of the greatest episode of ethnic cleansing ever attempted in Western Europe as, within a decade, the percentage of land possessed by Catholics born in Ireland dropped from sixty to twenty. In a decade, the ownership of two-fifths of the land mass was transferred from several thousand Irish Catholic landowners to British Protestants. The gap between Irish and the English views of the seventeenth-century conquest remains unbridgeable and is governed by G. K. Chesterton's mirthless epigram of 1917, that 'it was a tragic necessity that the Irish should remember it; but it was far more tragic that the English forgot it'."
- James M. Lutz
Archived
16 December 2008 at the
Wayback Machine
, Brenda J. Lutz (2004).
Global Terrorism
, Routledge: London. p. 193: "The draconian laws applied by Oliver Cromwell in Ireland were an early version of ethnic cleansing. The Catholic Irish were to be expelled to the northwestern areas of the island. Relocation rather than extermination was the goal."
- Mark Levene
Archived
16 December 2008 at the
Wayback Machine
(2005).
Genocide in the Age of the Nation State: Volume 2
.
ISBN
978-1-84511-057-4
. pp. 55?57. A sample quote describes the Cromwellian campaign and settlement as "a conscious attempt to reduce a distinct ethnic population".
- Mark Levene (2005).
Genocide in the Age of the Nation-State
. London: I.B. Tauris.
[The Act of Settlement of Ireland], and the parliamentary legislation which succeeded it the following year, is the nearest thing on paper in the English, and more broadly British, domestic record, to a programme of state-sanctioned and systematic ethnic cleansing of another people. The fact that it did not include "total" genocide in its remit, or that it failed to put into practice the vast majority of its proposed expulsions, ultimately, however, says less about the lethal determination of its makers and more about the political, structural and financial weakness of the early modern English state.
- ^
Hickey, Kieran.
"Wolf - Forgotten Irish Hunter"
(PDF)
.
Wild Ireland
(May?June 2003): 10?13. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 25 March 2014
. Retrieved
4 October
2022
.
- ^
Hickey, Kieran R.
"A geographical perspective on the decline and extermination of the Irish wolf
canis lupus
? an initial assessment"
(PDF)
. Department of Geography, National University of Ireland, Galway. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 7 September 2012
. Retrieved
4 October
2022
.
Bibliography
[
edit
]
- Coyle Eugene,
"A review"
. Archived from the original on 31 October 2006
. Retrieved
16 July
2007
.
{{
cite web
}}
: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
link
)
, of
Cromwell: An Honourable Enemy
, by Tom Reilly, Brandon Press, 1999,
ISBN
0-86322-250-1
- Carlyle, Thomas (2010), Traill, Henry Duff; Cromwell, Oliver (eds.),
The Works of Thomas Carlyle
, vol. 2, Cambridge University Press, p.
132
,
ISBN
9781108022309
- Fraser, Antonia.
Cromwell Our Chief of Men
, Panther, St Albans 1975,
ISBN
0-586-04206-7
- O Siochru, Micheal. RTE ONE, Cromwell in Ireland Part 2. Broadcast 16 September 2008.
- O'Callaghan, Sean (2000).
To Hell or Barbados
. Brandon. p. 85.
ISBN
978-0-86322-272-6
.
- Higman, B. W. (1997). Knight, Franklin W. (ed.).
General History of the Caribbean: The slave societies of the Caribbean
. Vol. 3 (illustrated ed.). UNESCO. pp. 107, 108.
ISBN
978-0-333-65605-1
.
- Irish Times staff (12 December 2009).
"Remnants of an indentured people"
.
The Irish Times
.
(subscription required)
- Kenyon, John; Ohlmeyer, Jane, eds. (1998).
The Civil Wars
. Oxford.
ISBN
0-19-866222-X
.
- Lenihan, Padraig,
Confederate Catholics at War
, Cork 2001.
ISBN
1-85918-244-5
- Morrill, John.
Rewriting Cromwell: A Case of Deafening Silences
. Canadian Journal of History. Dec 2003.
- Reilly, Tom.
Cromwell, an Honourable Enemy
, Dingle 1999,
ISBN
0-86322-250-1
- Scott-Wheeler, James,
Cromwell in Ireland
, Dublin 1999,
ISBN
978-0-7171-2884-6
Further reading
[
edit
]
- Butler, William
(1903).
"Oliver Cromwell in Ireland"
. In
O'Brien, R. Barry
(ed.).
Studies in Irish History, 1649?1775
. Dublin: Browne and Nolan. pp. 1?65.
- Canny, Nicholas P.
Making Ireland British 1580?1650
, Oxford 2001,
ISBN
0-19-820091-9
- Gentles, Ian.
The New Model Army
, Cambridge 1994,
ISBN
0-631-19347-2
- O'Siochru, Micheal,
God's Executioner- Oliver Cromwell and the Conquest of Ireland
, Faber & Faber, London, 2008.
- Plant, David.
Cromwell in Ireland: 1649?52
,
British Civil Wars
, Retrieved 22 September 2008
- Stradling, R.A.
The Spanish monarchy and Irish mercenaries
, Irish Academic Press, Dublin 1994.
- Excerpts, support for and a critique of Tom Reilly's
Cromwell, an Honourable Enemy
(1999)
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