Professional head of the English and then British Army (1660?1904)
The
Commander-in-Chief of the Forces
, later
Commander-in-Chief, British Army
, or just the
Commander-in-Chief
(
C-in-C
), was (intermittently) the professional head of the
English Army
from 1660 to 1707 (the English Army, founded in 1645, was succeeded in 1707 by the new British Army, incorporating existing Scottish regiments) and of the
British Army
from 1707 until 1904. In 1904 the office was replaced with the creation of the
Army Council
and the appointment of
Chief of the General Staff
.
Republican origins
[
edit
]
In earlier times, supreme command of the Army had been exercised by the monarch in person. In 1645, after the outbreak of the
English Civil War
,
Parliament
appointed
Thomas Fairfax
"Captain General and Commander-in-Chief of all the armies and forces raised and to be raised within the
Commonwealth of England
".
[1]
Thomas Fairfax was the senior-most military officer, having no superior, and held great personal control over the army and its officers. Lord Fairfax was styled "Lord General". None of his successors would use this title. In 1650, Fairfax resigned his post, shortly before the
Scottish campaign
of the War.
[2]
Oliver Cromwell
, Fairfax's
Lieutenant-General
, succeeded him as Commander-in-chief of the Forces.
[2]
Under Cromwell, the Commander-in-Chief was
de facto
head of state, especially after the dismissal of the
Long Parliament
. Cromwell held the office until 1653, when he was elected
Lord Protector
.
[3]
On 21 February 1660, the reconstituted
Long Parliament
resolved "that General
George Monck
be constituted and appointed
Captain-General
and Commander in Chief, under Parliament, of all the Land-Forces of England, Scotland and Ireland".
[4]
Post-Restoration history
[
edit
]
After Monck's death, the post, which gave the holder significant military power, was abolished until
James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth
successfully petitioned
Charles II
and was granted it in 1674.
[5]
After Monmouth's execution the post was again not filled until 1690, when it was bestowed upon
John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough
, during the
King
's absence in Ireland.
[6]
It was likewise conferred on
Meinhardt Schomberg, Duke of Schomberg
the following year during the King's absence in
Flanders
, Marlborough having fallen from favour.
[7]
After 1660 it became rare for British sovereigns to lead their troops in battle (with the notable exception of
King William III
); instead, it became normative for command (especially in time of war) to be delegated to an individual, who usually held the appointment of
Captain General
or Commander-in-Chief of the Forces.
[8]
(In early years these two titles were often used interchangeably, and/or the appointments were held concurrently). The office was not always filled: for example,
James II
and William III both functioned themselves as Commander-in-Chief; at other times the appointment simply lapsed (especially if there was no perceived immediate military threat).
[8]
With the appointment of General
Lord Jeffrey Amherst
in 1793, the Commander-in-Chief was given authority over matters of discipline, over supplies, training and promotions in the British Army. The establishment of a
military staff
took place under the oversight of his successor,
Frederick, Duke of York
.
[9]
In most instances, Commanders-in-Chief of the Forces were not
Cabinet
members (only
Conway
and
Wellington
had a seat in Cabinet by virtue of holding this office;
Ligonier
and
Granby
were also in Cabinet during their time in office, but in both cases sat as
Master-General of the Ordnance
).
[8]
Instead, the British Army was represented variously and tenuously in government by the
Paymaster of the Forces
(
Paymaster General
from 1836), the
Master-General of the Ordnance
(who did not invariably have a seat in Cabinet), the
Secretary at War
(who was not usually a member of the Cabinet) and (from 1794) the
Secretary of State for War
.
[8]
With the demise of the
Board of Ordnance
in the wake of the
Crimean War
the Commander-in-Chief assumed command of the Ordnance troops: the
Royal Regiment of Artillery
and the
Corps of Royal Engineers
. The momentum of reform at this time, however, was toward increasing the authority of the
Secretary of State for War
. From the passing of the
War Office Act 1870
, as part of the
Cardwell Reforms
, the Commander-in-Chief was made clearly subordinate to the Secretary of State, to serve as the latter's principal military adviser, and was made to move out of his traditional office above the arch at
Horse Guards
and into the
War Office
. Nevertheless, in 1888 he is still described as having responsibility for all personnel and
materiel
issues for the army and auxiliary forces, and in 1895 he took on the responsibilities of
chief of staff
.
[9]
The appointment of Commander-in-Chief remained in the personal gift of the monarch, and its independence was guarded by
Queen Victoria
(among others) as emblematic of the notion that command of the Army was vested in
the Crown
; during her reign, however, the office was (in 1870) made much more clearly subordinate to the
Secretary of State for War
(and to Parliament).
[10]
Following the recommendations of the
Esher Report
, the office was replaced in 1904 with the creation of the
Army Council
and the appointment of
Chief of the General Staff
. The title reverted to the monarch, who remains (titular) "
Commander-in-chief of the British Armed Forces
".
[11]
The Forces
[
edit
]
The British military (ie., that part of the armed forces committed to land warfare, and not to be confused with the naval forces) was originally made up of several
forces
, including the British Army, the others being: the Ordnance Military Corps of the
Board of Ordnance
(including the
Royal Artillery
,
Royal Engineers
, and
Royal Sappers and Miners
), being a professional, or
regular
force like the army);
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
the
Militia Force
(or
Constitutional Force
),
[16]
[17]
[18]
[19]
being a conscripted reserve infantry force able to be called out in times of emergency for home defence; the
Yeomanry
,
[20]
being a similar mounted force; and the
Volunteer Corps
, made up of voluntary reserve units that normally only existed during wartime.
[21]
[22]
The Board of Ordnance was abolished in 1855 and its military corps,
commissariat stores
, transport, barracks and other departments were absorbed into the British Army, which was also called
Regular Force
or
Regular Army
). The
Reserve Forces
were also known as the
Auxiliary Forces
and the
Local Forces
(as their personnel could not originally be compelled to serve outside their local areas), and were re-organised in the 1850s with the Militia becoming voluntary (but with recruits engaging for a period of service that they were obliged to complete),
[23]
and the
Volunteer Force
permanently established. These forces were increasingly integrated with the British Army during the final decades of the Nineteenth Century and the first decades of the Twentieth Century (the Yeomanry and Volunteer Force became the
Territorial Force
in 1908, and the Militia became the Special Reserve (and ceased to exist after the First World War).
[24]
[25]
[26]
[27]
[28]
[29]
[30]
[31]
[32]
[33]
[34]
[35]
Appointees
[
edit
]
The following table lists all those who have held the post of Commander-in-Chief of the Forces or its preceding positions. Ranks and honours are as at the completion of their tenure:
† denotes people who died in office.
No.
|
Portrait
|
Name
|
Took office
|
Left office
|
Time in office
|
Ref.
|
Parliamentary General-in-Chief Command
|
1
| | Fairfax, Thomas
Captain General
Sir Thomas Fairfax
(1612?1671)
| 1645
| 1650
| 4?5 years
| [1]
|
2
| | Cromwell, Oliver
Captain General
Oliver Cromwell
(1599?1658)
| 1650
| 1653
| 2?3 years
| [2]
|
General-in-Chief Command
|
1
| | Monck, George
Captain General
George Monck, 1st Duke of Albemarle
(1608?1670)
| 3 August 1660
| 3 January 1670 †
| 9 years, 153 days
| [36]
|
Position vacant
(3 January 1670 ? 30 March 1674)
|
2
| | Scott, James
General
James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth
(1649?1685)
| 30 March 1674
| 1 December 1679
| 5 years, 246 days
| [37]
|
Position vacant
(1 December 1679 ? 3 June 1690)
|
3
| | Churchill, John
General
John Churchill, 1st Earl of Marlborough
(1650?1722)
| 3 June 1690
| 30 April 1691
| 331 days
| [6]
|
4
| | Schomberg, Meinhardt
General
Meinhardt Schomberg, 3rd Duke of Schomberg
(1641?1719)
| 30 April 1691
| 1691
| 0 years
| [7]
|
Position vacant
(1691 ? 24 April 1702)
|
(3)
| | Churchill, John
General
John Churchill, 1st Earl of Marlborough
(1650?1722)
| 24 April 1702
| 1711
| 8?9 years
| [6]
[38]
|
5
| | Butler, James
General
James Butler, 2nd Duke of Ormonde
(1665?1745)
| 1 January 1711
| 1714
| 2?3 years
| [39]
|
(3)
| | Churchill, John
General
John Churchill, 1st Earl of Marlborough
(1650?1722)
| 1714
| 1722
| 7?8 years
| [8]
|
Position vacant
(1714 ? 1 January 1744)
|
6
| | Dalrymple, John
Field Marshal
John Dalrymple, 2nd Earl of Stair
(1673?1747)
| 1 January 1744
| 1744
| 0 years
| [40]
|
7
| | Wade, George
Field Marshal
George Wade
(1673?1748)
| 1744
| 1745
| 0?1 years
| [41]
|
Position vacant
(1745 ? 1745)
|
8
| | Duke of Cumberland, Prince William
General
Prince William, Duke of Cumberland
(1721?1765)
| 1745
| 24 October 1757
| 11?12 years
| [42]
|
9
| | Ligonier, John
Field Marshal
John Ligonier, 1st Earl Ligonier
(1680?1770)
| 24 October 1757
| 1766
| 8?9 years
| [43]
[44]
|
10
| | Manners, John
Lieutenant-General
John Manners, Marquess of Granby
(1721?1770)
| 13 August 1766
| 17 January 1770
| 3 years, 157 days
| [45]
|
Position vacant
(17 January 1770 ? 19 March 1778)
|
11
| | Amherst, Jeffrey
Field Marshal
Jeffery Amherst, 1st Baron Amherst
(1717?1797)
| 19 March 1778
| 29 March 1782
| 4 years, 10 days
| [46]
|
12
| | Conway, Henry
Field Marshal
Henry Seymour Conway
(1721?1795)
| 29 March 1782
| 21 January 1793
| 10 years, 298 days
| [47]
|
Commander-in-Chief
|
1
| | Amherst, Jeffrey
Field Marshal
Jeffery Amherst, 1st Lord Amherst
(1717?1797)
| January 1793
| February 1795
| 2 years, 31 days
| [48]
|
2
| | Duke of York, Prince Frederick
Field Marshal
Prince Frederick, Duke of York
(1763?1827)
| 3 April 1795
| 25 March 1809
| 13 years, 356 days
| [49]
|
3
| | Dundas, David
General
Sir David Dundas
(1735?1820)
| 18 March 1809
| 26 May 1811
| 2 years, 69 days
| [50]
|
(2)
| | Duke of York, Prince Frederick
Field Marshal
Prince Frederick, Duke of York
(1763?1827)
| 29 May 1811
| 5 January 1827 †
| 15 years, 221 days
| [51]
|
4
| | Wellesley, Arthur
Field Marshal
Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington
(1769?1852)
| 22 January 1827
| 22 January 1828
| 1 year
| [52]
|
5
| | Hill, Rowland
General
Rowland Hill, 1st Lord Hill
(1772?1842)
| 22 January 1828
| 15 August 1842
| 14 years, 205 days
| [53]
|
(4)
| | Wellesley, Arthur
Field Marshal
Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington
(1769?1852)
| 15 August 1842
| 14 September 1852 †
| 10 years, 30 days
| [54]
|
6
| | Hardinge, Henry
Field Marshal
Henry Hardinge, 1st Viscount Hardinge
(1785?1856)
| 28 September 1852
| 5 July 1856
| 3 years, 281 days
| [55]
|
7
| | Duke of Cambridge, Prince George
Field Marshal
Prince George, Duke of Cambridge
(1819?1904)
| 5 July 1856
| 1 November 1895
| 39 years, 119 days
| [56]
|
8
| | Wolseley, Garnet
Field Marshal
Garnet Wolseley, 1st Viscount Wolseley
(1833?1913)
| 1 November 1895
| 3 January 1901
| 5 years, 63 days
| [57]
|
9
| | Roberts, Frederick
Field Marshal
Frederick Roberts, 1st Earl Roberts
(1832?1914)
| 3 January 1901
| 12 February 1904
| 3 years, 40 days
| [58]
|
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edit
]
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b
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b
c
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, ed. (1911). "
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".
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- ^
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Sources
[
edit
]
- Gaunt, Peter (1996),
Oliver Cromwell
, Blackwell,
ISBN
0-631-18356-6
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Peninsular Preparation: The Reform of the British Army 1795?1809
. Cambridge University Press.
- Heathcote, Tony (1999).
The British Field Marshals 1736?1997
. Pen & Sword Books Ltd.
ISBN
0-85052-696-5
.
External links
[
edit
]
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General
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Regiments
and Corps
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