Physical property of chemicals
The
color of chemicals
is a
physical property
of chemicals that in most cases comes from the
excitation of electrons
due to an absorption of energy performed by the chemical. What is seen by the eye is not the color absorbed, but the
complementary color
from the removal of the absorbed
wavelengths
. This spectral perspective was first noted in
atomic spectroscopy
.
The study of chemical structure by means of energy absorption and release is generally referred to as
spectroscopy
.
Theory
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]
The
UV-vis
spectrum for a compound that appears orange in
Dimethylformamide
All atoms and molecules are capable of absorbing and releasing energy in the form of
photons
, accompanied by a change of quantum state. The amount of energy absorbed or released is the difference between the energies of the two quantum states. There are various types of quantum state, including, for example, the rotational and vibrational states of a molecule. However the release of energy visible to the human eye, commonly referred to as visible light, spans the wavelengths approximately 380 nm to 760 nm, depending on the individual, and photons in this range usually accompany a change in
atomic
or
molecular orbital
quantum state. The perception of light is governed by three types of
color
receptors in the eye, which are sensitive to different ranges of wavelength within this band.
The relationship between energy and wavelength is determined by the
Planck-Einstein relation
![{\displaystyle E=hf={\frac {hc}{\lambda }}\,\!}](https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1f9c6febdb262c24c1541e6bc246b43853524d23)
where
E
is the energy of the
quantum
(
photon
),
f
is the
frequency
of the light wave,
h
is
Planck's constant
,
λ
is the wavelength and
c
is the
speed of light
.
The relationships between the energies of the various quantum states are treated by
atomic orbital
,
molecular orbital
,
Ligand Field Theory
and
Crystal Field Theory
. If photons of a particular wavelength are absorbed by matter, then when we observe light reflected from or transmitted through that matter, what we see is the
complementary color
, made up of the other visible wavelengths remaining. For example,
beta-carotene
has maximum absorption at 454 nm (blue light), consequently what visible light remains appears orange .
Colors by wavelength
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Below is a rough table of wavelengths, colors and complementary colors. This utilizes the scientific
CMY
and
RGB
color wheels
rather than the traditional
RYB
color wheel.
[1]
Wavelength
(nm)
|
Color
|
Complementary
color
|
400?424
|
|
Violet
|
|
Yellow
|
424?491
|
|
Blue
|
|
Orange
|
491?570
|
|
Green
|
|
Red
|
570?585
|
|
Yellow
|
|
Violet
|
585?647
|
|
Orange
|
|
Blue
|
647?700
|
|
Red
|
|
Green
|
This can only be used as a very rough guide, for instance if a narrow range of wavelengths within the band 647-700 is absorbed, then the blue and green receptors will be fully stimulated, making cyan, and the red receptor will be partially stimulated, diluting the cyan to a greyish hue.
By category
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The vast majority of simple inorganic (e.g.
sodium chloride
) and organic compounds (e.g. ethanol) are colorless.
Transition metal
compounds are often colored because of transitions of electrons between
d-orbitals
of different energy. (see
Transition metal#Colored compounds
). Organic compounds tend to be colored when there is extensive
conjugation
, causing the energy gap between the
HOMO and LUMO
to decrease, bringing the absorption band from the UV to the visible region. Similarly, color is due to the energy absorbed by the compound, when an electron transitions from the HOMO to the LUMO.
Lycopene
is a classic example of a compound with extensive conjugation (11 conjugated double bonds), giving rise to an intense red color (lycopene is responsible for the color of
tomatoes
).
Charge-transfer complexes
tend to have very intense colors for different reasons.
Examples
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It is important to note, however, that elemental colors will vary depending on what they are complexed with, often as well as their chemical state. An example with vanadium(III); VCl
3
has a distinctive reddish hue, whilst V
2
O
3
appears black.
Salts
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Predicting the color of a compound can be extremely complicated. Some examples include:
- Cobalt chloride is pink or blue depending on the state of hydration (blue dry, pink with water) so it is used as a moisture indicator in silica gel.
- Zinc oxide is white, but at higher temperatures becomes yellow, returning to white as it cools.
Ions in flame
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Gases
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Bead tests
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A variety of colors, often similar to the colors found in a
flame test
, are produced in a bead test, which is a qualitative test for determining metals. A
platinum loop
is moistened and dipped in a fine powder of the substance in question and
borax
. The loop with the adhered powders is then heated in a flame until it fuses and the color of the resulting bead observed.
Colors exhibited by metals in the bead test
Metal
[3]
|
Oxidizing flame
|
Reducing flame
|
Aluminum
|
colorless (hot and cold), opaque
|
colorless, opaque
|
Antimony
|
colorless, yellow or brown (hot)
|
gray and opaque
|
Barium
|
colorless
|
|
Bismuth
|
colorless, yellow or brownish (hot)
|
gray and opaque
|
Cadmium
|
colorless
|
gray and opaque
|
Calcium
|
colorless
|
|
Cerium
|
red (hot)
|
colorless (hot and cold)
|
Chromium
|
Dark yellow (hot), green (cold)
|
green (hot and cold)
|
Cobalt
|
blue (hot and cold)
|
blue (hot and cold)
|
Copper
|
green (hot), blue (cold)
|
red, opaque (cold), colorless (hot)
|
Gold
|
golden (hot), silver (cold)
|
red (hot and cold)
|
Iron
|
yellow or brownish red (hot and cold)
|
green (hot and cold)
|
Lead
|
colorless, yellow or brownish (hot)
|
gray and opaque
|
Magnesium
|
colorless
|
|
Manganese
|
violet (hot and cold)
|
colorless (hot and cold)
|
Molybdenum
|
colorless
|
yellow or brown (hot)
|
Nickel
|
brown, red (cold)
|
gray and opaque (cold)
|
Silicon
|
colorless (hot and cold), opaque
|
colorless, opaque
|
Silver
|
colorless
|
gray and opaque
|
Strontium
|
colorless
|
|
Tin
|
colorless (hot and cold), opaque
|
colorless, opaque
|
Titanium
|
colorless
|
yellow (hot), violet (cold)
|
Tungsten
|
colorless
|
brown
|
Uranium
|
Yellow or brownish (hot)
|
green
|
Vanadium
|
colorless
|
green
|
References
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