Protection of citizens from natural disaster and military attack
Civil defense
(
Commonwealth English
:
civil defence
) or
civil protection
is an effort to protect the citizens of a state (generally
non-combatants
) from human-made and
natural disasters
. It uses the principles of
emergency operations
:
prevention
,
mitigation
, preparation, response, or
emergency evacuation
and recovery. Programs of this sort were initially discussed at least as early as the 1920s and were implemented in some countries during the 1930s as the threat of
war
and
aerial bombardment
grew. Civil-defense structures became widespread after authorities recognised the threats posed by
nuclear weapons
.
Since the end of the
Cold War
, the focus of civil defense has largely shifted from responding to military attack to dealing with emergencies and disasters in general. The new concept is characterised by a number of terms, each of which has its own specific shade of meaning, such as
crisis management
,
emergency management
,
emergency preparedness
,
contingency planning
,
civil contingency
,
civil aid
and
civil protection
.
Some countries treat civil defense as a key part of defense in general. For example,
Total defence
refers to the commitment of a wide range of national resources to defense, including the protection of all aspects of civilian life.
History
[
edit
]
Origins
[
edit
]
United Kingdom
[
edit
]
The advent of civil defense was stimulated by the experience of the bombing of civilian areas during the
First World War
. The
bombing of the United Kingdom
began on 19 January 1915 when German
zeppelins
dropped bombs on the
Great Yarmouth
area, killing six people.
German
bombing operations of the First World War were surprisingly effective, especially after the
Gotha
bombers surpassed the zeppelins. The most devastating raids inflicted 121 casualties for each
ton
of bombs dropped; this figure was then used as a basis for predictions.
After the war, attention was turned toward civil defense in the event of war, and the
Air Raid Precautions
Committee (ARP) was established in 1924 to investigate ways for ensuring the protection of civilians from the danger of
air-raids
.
The Committee produced figures estimating that in
London
there would be 9,000 casualties in the first two days and then a continuing rate of 17,500 casualties a week. These rates were thought conservative. It was believed that there would be "total chaos and panic" and hysterical neurosis as the people of London would try to flee the city. To control the population harsh measures were proposed: bringing London under almost military control, and physically cordoning off the city with 120,000 troops to force people back to work. A different government department proposed setting up camps for
refugees
for a few days before sending them back to London.
A special government department, the
Civil Defence Service
, was established by the
Home Office
in 1935. Its remit included the pre-existing ARP as well as wardens, firemen (initially the
Auxiliary Fire Service
(AFS) and latterly the
National Fire Service
(NFS)), fire watchers, rescue, first aid post, stretcher party and industry. Over 1.9 million people served within the CD; nearly 2,400 died from enemy action.
The organization of civil defense was the responsibility of the local authority. Volunteers were ascribed to different units depending on experience or training. Each local civil defense service was divided into several sections. Wardens were responsible for local
reconnaissance
and reporting, and leadership, organization, guidance and control of the general public. Wardens would also advise survivors of the locations of rest and food centers, and other welfare facilities.
Rescue Parties were required to assess and then access bombed-out buildings and retrieve injured or dead people. In addition they would turn off
gas
,
electricity
and
water supplies
, and repair or pull down unsteady buildings. Medical services, including
First Aid
Parties, provided on the spot medical assistance.
The expected stream of information that would be generated during an attack was handled by 'Report and Control' teams. A local
headquarters
would have an ARP controller who would direct rescue, first aid and
decontamination
teams to the scenes of reported bombing. If local services were deemed insufficient to deal with the incident then the controller could request assistance from surrounding
boroughs
.
Fire Guards were responsible for a designated area/building and required to monitor the fall of
incendiary bombs
and pass on news of any fires that had broken out to the NFS. They could deal with an individual
magnesium alloy ("Elektron") incendiary bomb
by dousing it with buckets of sand or water or by smothering. Additionally, 'Gas Decontamination Teams' kitted out with gas-tight and
waterproof
protective clothing
were to deal with any
gas attacks
. They were trained to decontaminate buildings, roads, rail and other material that had been contaminated by liquid or jelly gases.
Little progress was made over the issue of
air-raid shelters
, because of the apparently irreconcilable conflict between the need to send the public underground for shelter and the need to keep them above ground for protection against gas attacks. In February 1936 the
Home Secretary
appointed a technical Committee on Structural Precautions against Air Attack. During the
Munich crisis
, local authorities dug trenches to provide shelter. After the crisis, the British Government decided to make these a permanent feature, with a standard design of precast concrete trench lining. They also decided to issue the
Anderson shelter
free to poorer households and to provide steel props to create shelters in suitable basements.
[1]
During the
Second World War
, the ARP was responsible for the issuing of
gas masks
, pre-fabricated
air-raid shelters
(such as
Anderson shelters
, as well as
Morrison shelters
), the upkeep of local public shelters, and the maintenance of the
blackout
. The ARP also helped rescue people after air raids and other attacks, and some women became ARP Ambulance Attendants whose job was to help administer first aid to casualties, search for survivors, and in many grim instances, help recover bodies, sometimes those of their own colleagues.
As the war progressed, the military effectiveness of Germany's aerial bombardment was very limited. Thanks to the Luftwaffe's shifting aims, the strength of British air defenses, the use of early warning radar and the life-saving actions of local civil defense units, the aerial "Blitz" during the
Battle of Britain
failed to break the morale of the British people, destroy the Royal Air Force or significantly hinder British industrial production.
[2]
Despite a significant investment in civil and military defense, British civilian losses during the Blitz were higher than in most strategic bombing campaigns throughout the war. For example, there were 14,000-20,000 UK civilian fatalities during the Battle of Britain,
[3]
a relatively high number considering that the
Luftwaffe
dropped only an estimated 30,000 tons of ordinance during the battle.
[4]
Granted, this resulting 0.47-0.67 civilian fatalities per ton of bombs dropped was lower than the earlier 121 casualties per ton prediction. However, in comparison, Allied
strategic bombing of Germany
during the war proved slightly less lethal than what was observed in the UK,
[
dubious
–
discuss
]
with an estimated 400,000-600,000 German civilian fatalities for approximately 1.35 million tons of bombs dropped on Germany,
[5]
[6]
an estimated resulting rate therefore of 0.30-0.44 civilian fatalities per ton of bombs dropped.
United States
[
edit
]
In the
United States
, the
Office of Civilian Defense
was established in May 1941 to coordinate civilian defense efforts. It coordinated with the
Department of the Army
and established similar groups to the British ARP. One of these groups that still exists today is the
Civil Air Patrol
, which was originally created as a civilian auxiliary to the
Army
. The CAP was created on December 1, 1941, with the main civil defense mission of search and rescue. The CAP also sank two Axis submarines and provided aerial reconnaissance for Allied and neutral merchant ships.
[7]
In 1946, the Civil Air Patrol was barred from combat by
Public Law 79-476
. The CAP then received its current mission: search and rescue for downed aircraft. When the
Air Force
was created, in 1947, the Civil Air Patrol became the auxiliary of the
Air Force
.
[8]
The
Coast Guard Auxiliary
performs a similar role in support of the
U.S. Coast Guard
.
[9]
Like the Civil Air Patrol, the Coast Guard Auxiliary was established in the run up to World War II. Auxiliarists were sometimes armed during the war, and extensively participated in port security operations. After the war, the Auxiliary shifted its focus to promoting boating safety and assisting the Coast Guard in performing search and rescue and marine safety and environmental protection.
In the United States a federal civil defense program existed under Public Law 920 of the 81st Congress,
[10]
as amended, from 1951 to 1994. That statutory scheme was made so-called all-hazards by Public Law 103?160 in 1993 and largely repealed by Public Law 103?337 in 1994.
[11]
Parts now appear in Title VI of the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act, Public Law 100-107 [1988 as amended].
[12]
The term EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS was largely codified by that repeal and amendment. See 42 USC Sections 5101 and following.
[12]
Post?World War II
[
edit
]
In most of the states of the
North Atlantic Treaty Organization
, such as the
United States
, the
United Kingdom
and
West Germany
, as well as the
Soviet Bloc
, and especially in the neutral countries, such as
Switzerland
and in
Sweden
during the 1950s and 1960s, many civil defense practices took place to prepare for the aftermath of a
nuclear war
, which seemed quite likely at that time.
[13]
In the
United Kingdom
, the
Civil Defence Service
was disbanded in 1945, followed by the ARP in 1946. With the onset of the growing
tensions between East and West
, the service was revived in 1949 as the
Civil Defence Corps
. As a civilian volunteer organization, it was tasked to take control in the aftermath of a major national emergency, principally envisaged as being a Cold War
nuclear attack
. Although under the authority of the
Home Office
, with a centralized administrative establishment, the corps was administered locally by Corps Authorities. In general every
county
was a Corps Authority, as were most
county boroughs
in
England and Wales
and large
burghs
in
Scotland
.
Each division was divided into several sections, including the Headquarters, Intelligence and Operations, Scientific and Reconnaissance, Warden & Rescue, Ambulance and First Aid and Welfare.
In 1954
Coventry City Council
caused international controversy when it announced plans to disband its Civil Defence committee because the councillors had decided that hydrogen bombs meant that there could be no recovery from a nuclear attack. The British government opposed such a move and held a provocative Civil Defence exercise on the streets of Coventry which Labour council members protested against.
[14]
The government also decided to implement its own committee at the city's cost until the council reinstituted its committee.
In the
United States
, the sheer power of
nuclear weapons
and the perceived likelihood of such an attack precipitated a greater response than had yet been required of civil defense. Civil defense, previously considered an important and commonsense step, became divisive and controversial in the charged atmosphere of the
Cold War
. In 1950, the
National Security Resources Board
created a 162-page document outlining a model civil defense structure for the U.S. Called the "Blue Book" by civil defense professionals in reference to its solid blue cover, it was the template for legislation and organization for the next 40 years.
[15]
Perhaps the most memorable aspect of the Cold War civil defense effort was the educational effort made or promoted by the government.
[16]
In
Duck and Cover
,
Bert the Turtle
advocated that children "
duck and cover
" when they "see the
flash
." Booklets such as
Survival Under Atomic Attack
,
Fallout Protection
and
Nuclear War Survival Skills
were also commonplace. The transcribed radio program
Stars for Defense
combined hit music with civil defense advice. Government institutes created
public service announcements
including children's songs and distributed them to radio stations to educate the public in case of nuclear attack.
The US
President Kennedy
(1961?63) launched an ambitious effort to install fallout shelters throughout the United States. These shelters would not protect against the blast and heat effects of nuclear weapons, but would provide some protection against the radiation effects that would last for weeks and even affect areas distant from a nuclear explosion. In order for most of these preparations to be effective, there had to be some degree of warning. In 1951,
CONELRAD
(Control of Electromagnetic Radiation) was established. Under the system, a few primary stations would be alerted of an emergency and would broadcast an alert. All broadcast stations throughout the country would be constantly listening to an upstream station and repeat the message, thus passing it from station to station.
In a once classified US
war game
analysis, looking at varying levels of war escalation, warning and pre-emptive attacks in the late 1950s early 1960s, it was estimated that approximately 27 million US citizens would have been saved with civil defense education.
[18]
At the time, however, the cost of a full-scale civil defense program was regarded as less effective in
cost-benefit analysis
than a
ballistic missile defense
(
Nike Zeus
) system, and as the Soviet adversary was increasing their
nuclear stockpile
, the
efficacy
of both would follow a
diminishing returns
trend.
[18]
Contrary to the largely noncommittal approach taken in
NATO
, with its stops and starts in civil defense depending on the whims of each newly elected government, the military strategy in the comparatively more ideologically consistent
USSR
held that, amongst other things, a winnable nuclear war was possible.
[19]
[20]
[21]
To this effect the
Soviets
planned to minimize, as far as possible, the effects of nuclear weapon strikes on its territory, and therefore spent considerably more thought on civil defense preparations than in U.S., with defense plans that have been assessed to be far more effective than those in the U.S.
[22]
[23]
[24]
[25]
Soviet Civil Defense Troops played the main role in the massive disaster relief operation following the
1986 Chernobyl nuclear accident
. Defense Troop
reservists
were officially
mobilized
(as in a case of war) from throughout the USSR to join the Chernobyl task force and formed on the basis of the
Kyiv
Civil Defense Brigade. The task force performed some high-risk tasks including, with the failure of their robotic machinery, the manual removal of highly-
radioactive
debris. Many of their personnel were later
decorated with medals for their work at containing the release of radiation into the environment
, with a number
[
quantify
]
of
the 56 deaths from the accident
being Civil defense troops.
[26]
In Western countries, strong civil defense policies were never properly implemented, because it was fundamentally at odds with the doctrine of "
mutual assured destruction
" (MAD) by making provisions for survivors.
[
dubious
–
discuss
]
It was also considered that a full-fledged total defense would have not been worth the very large expense. For whatever reason, the public saw efforts at civil defense as fundamentally ineffective against the powerful destructive forces of nuclear weapons, and therefore a waste of time and money, although detailed scientific research programs did underlie the much-mocked government civil defense pamphlets of the 1950s and 1960s.
[28]
The
Civil Defence Corps
was stood down in Great Britain in 1968 due to the financial crisis of the mid-1960s.
[29]
Its neighbors, however, remained committed to Civil Defence, namely the
Isle of Man Civil Defence Corps
and
Civil Defence Ireland
(Republic of Ireland).
In the United States, the various civil defense agencies were replaced with the
Federal Emergency Management Agency
(FEMA) in 1979. In 2002 this became part of the
Department of Homeland Security
. The focus was shifted from nuclear war to an "all-hazards" approach of
Comprehensive Emergency Management
.
Natural disasters
and the emergence of new threats such as
terrorism
have caused attention to be focused away from traditional civil defense and into new forms of civil protection such as
emergency management
and
homeland security
.
Today
[
edit
]
Many
countries
maintain a national Civil Defence Corps, usually having a wide brief for assisting in large scale civil emergencies such as flood, earthquake, invasion, or civil disorder.
After the
September 11 attacks
in 2001, in the United States the concept of civil defense has been revisited under the umbrella term of
homeland security
and all-hazards emergency management.
In
Europe
, the triangle CD logo continues to be widely used. Created in 1939 by Charles Coiner of the N. W. Ayer Advertising Agency, it was used throughout World War II and the Cold War era. In the U.S., 2006 saw the retirement of the old triangle logo, to be replaced with a stylized
EM
(for
emergency management
). A reference to the old CD logo (without the red CD letters) can be seen above the eagle's head in the FEMA seal.
[
citation needed
]
The name and logo continue to be used by
Hawaii
State Civil Defense
[30]
and
Guam
Homeland Security/Office of Civil Defense.
[31]
In Great Britian, a charity providing a Civil Defense response was launched during 2015 to fill the gap since the disbandment of the Government run Civil Defense service.
The term "civil protection" is currently widely used within the
European Union
to refer to government-approved systems and resources tasked with protecting the non-combat population, primarily in the event of natural and technological disasters. For example, the EU's humanitarian aid policy director on the Ebola Crisis,
Florika Fink-Hooijer
, said that civil protection requires "not just more resources, but first and foremost better governance of the resources that are available including better synergies between humanitarian aid and civil protection".
[32]
In recent years there has been emphasis on preparedness for technological disasters resulting from terrorist attack. Within EU countries the term "crisis-management" emphasizes the political and security dimension rather than measures to satisfy the immediate needs of the population.
In Australia, civil defense is the responsibility of the volunteer-based
State Emergency Service
. In most former Soviet countries civil defense is the responsibility of governmental ministries, such as Russia's
Ministry of Emergency Situations
.
Importance
[
edit
]
Relatively small investments in preparation can speed up recovery by months or years and thereby prevent millions of deaths by hunger, cold and disease.
[33]
According to
human capital
theory in
economics
, a country's population is more valuable than all of the land, factories and other assets that it possesses. People rebuild a country after its destruction, and it is therefore important for the economic security of a country that it protect its people. According to
psychology
, it is important for people to feel as though they are in control of their own destiny, and preparing for uncertainty via civil defense may help to achieve this.
In the United States, the federal civil defense program was authorized by statute and ran from 1951 to 1994. Originally authorized by Public Law 920 of the 81st Congress, it was repealed by Public Law 93?337 in 1994. Small portions of that statutory scheme were incorporated into the
Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act
(Public Law 100?707) which partly superseded in part, partly amended, and partly supplemented the
Disaster Relief Act of 1974
(Public Law 93-288). In the portions of the civil defense statute incorporated into the Stafford Act, the primary modification was to use the term "Emergency Preparedness" wherever the term "Civil Defence" had previously appeared in the statutory language.
An important concept initiated by President
Jimmy Carter
was the so-called "Crisis Relocation Program" administered as part of the federal civil defense program. That effort largely lapsed under President Ronald Reagan, who discontinued the Carter initiative because of opposition from areas potentially hosting the relocated population.
[34]
Threat assessment
[
edit
]
Threats to civilians and civilian life include NBC (
Nuclear
,
Biological
, and
Chemical warfare
) and others, like the more modern term
CBRN
(Chemical Biological Radiological and Nuclear).
Threat assessment
involves studying each threat so that preventative measures can be built into civilian life.
- Conventional
Refers to conventional explosives. A
blast shelter
designed to protect only from radiation and fallout would be much more vulnerable to conventional explosives. See also
fallout shelter
.
- Nuclear
Shelter intended to protect against nuclear blast effects would include thick concrete and other sturdy elements which are resistant to conventional explosives. The biggest threats from a nuclear attack are effects from the blast, fires and radiation. One of the most prepared countries for a nuclear attack is
Switzerland
. Almost every building in Switzerland has an
abri
(shelter) against the initial nuclear bomb and explosion followed by the fall-out.
[35]
[36]
Because of this, many people use it as a safe to protect valuables, photos, financial information and so on. Switzerland also has air-raid and nuclear-raid sirens in every village.
- Dirty Bomb
A "radiologically enhanced weapon", or "
dirty bomb
", uses an explosive to spread radioactive material. This is a theoretical risk, and such weapons have not been used by terrorists. Depending on the quantity of the radioactive material, the dangers may be mainly psychological. Toxic effects can be managed by standard
hazmat
techniques.
- Biological
The threat here is primarily from disease-causing microorganisms such as bacteria and viruses.
- Chemical
Various chemical agents are a threat, such as
nerve gas
(
VX
,
Sarin
, and so on.).
Stages
[
edit
]
Mitigation
[
edit
]
Mitigation is the process of actively preventing war or the release of
nuclear weapons
. It includes policy analysis, diplomacy, political measures,
nuclear disarmament
and more military responses such as a
National Missile Defense
and
air defense artillery
. In the case of counter-terrorism, mitigation would include diplomacy,
intelligence
gathering and direct action against terrorist groups. Mitigation may also be reflected in long-term planning such as the design of the
interstate highway
system and the placement of military bases further away from populated areas.
Preparation
[
edit
]
Preparation consists of building
blast shelters
and pre-positioning information, supplies, and emergency infrastructure. For example, most larger cities in the U.S. now have underground emergency operations centers that can perform civil defense coordination. FEMA also has many underground facilities for the same purpose located near major railheads such as the ones in
Denton, Texas
and
Mount Weather
, Virginia.
Other measures would include continual government inventories of grain silos, the
Strategic National Stockpile
, the uncapping of the
Strategic Petroleum Reserve
, the dispersal of lorry-transportable bridges, water purification, mobile refineries, mobile de-contamination facilities, mobile general and special purpose disaster mortuary facilities such as
Disaster Mortuary Operational Response Team
(DMORT) and
DMORT-WMD
, and other aids such as temporary housing to speed civil recovery.
On an individual scale, one means of preparation for exposure to
nuclear fallout
is to obtain
potassium iodide
(KI) tablets as a safety measure to protect the human
thyroid
gland from the uptake of dangerous radioactive
iodine
. Another measure is to cover the nose, mouth and eyes with a piece of cloth and sunglasses to protect against
alpha particles
, which are only an internal hazard.
To support and supplement efforts at national, regional and local level with regard to disaster prevention, the
preparedness
of those responsible for civil protection and the intervention in the event of disaster
- To establish a framework for effective and rapid cooperation between different civil protection services when mutual assistance is needed (police,
fire service
,
healthcare
service,
public utility
provider
, voluntary agencies)
- To set up and implement training programs for intervention and coordination teams as well as assessment experts including joint courses and exchange systems
- To enhance the coherence of actions undertaken at international level in the field of civil protection, especially in the context of cooperation
Preparing also includes sharing information:
- To contribute to informing the public, in view of increasing citizens' level of self-protection
- To collect and disseminate validated emergency information
- To pool information on national civil protection capabilities, military and medical resources
- To ensure efficient information sharing between the different authorities
Response
[
edit
]
Response consists first of warning civilians so they can enter
fallout shelters
and protect assets.
Staffing a response is always full of problems in a civil defense emergency. After an attack, conventional full-time emergency services are dramatically overloaded, with conventional fire fighting response times often exceeding several days. Some capability is maintained by local and state agencies, and an emergency reserve is provided by specialized military units, especially
civil affairs
,
Military Police
,
Judge Advocates
and
combat engineers
.
However, the traditional response to massed attack on civilian population centers is to maintain a mass-trained force of volunteer emergency workers. Studies in
World War II
showed that lightly trained (40 hours or less) civilians in organised teams can perform up to 95% of emergency activities when trained, liaised and supported by local government. In this plan, the populace rescues itself from most situations, and provides information to a central office to prioritize professional emergency services.
In the 1990s, this concept was revived by the
Los Angeles Fire Department
to cope with civil emergencies such as
earthquakes
. The program was widely adopted, providing standard terms for organization. In the U.S., this is now official federal policy, and it is implemented by
community emergency response teams
, under the Department of Homeland Security, which certifies training programs by local governments, and registers "certified disaster service workers" who complete such training.
Recovery
[
edit
]
Recovery consists of rebuilding damaged infrastructure, buildings and production. The recovery phase is the longest and ultimately most expensive phase. Once the immediate "crisis" has passed, cooperation fades away and recovery efforts are often politicized or seen as economic opportunities.
Preparation for recovery can be very helpful. If mitigating resources are dispersed before the attack, cascades of social failures can be prevented. One hedge against bridge damage in riverine cities is to subsidize a "tourist ferry" that performs scenic cruises on the river. When a bridge is down, the ferry takes up the load.
Civil defense organizations
[
edit
]
Civil Defense is also the name of a number of organizations around the world dedicated to protecting civilians from military attacks, as well as to providing rescue services after natural and human-made disasters alike.
Worldwide protection is managed by the
United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs
(
OCHA
).
In a few countries such as
Jordan
and
Singapore
(see
Singapore Civil Defence Force
), civil defense is essentially the same organization
[
clarification needed
]
as the
fire brigade
. In most countries, however, civil defense is a government-managed, volunteer-staffed organization, separate from the fire brigade and the
ambulance
service.
As the threat of Cold War eased, a number of such civil defense organizations have been disbanded or mothballed (as in the case of the
Royal Observer Corps
in the
United Kingdom
and the
United States civil defense
), while others have changed their focuses into providing rescue services after natural disasters (as for the
State Emergency Service
in
Australia
). However, the ideals of Civil Defense
[
clarification needed
]
have been brought back in the
United States
under FEMA's
Citizen Corps
and
Community Emergency Response Team
(CERT).
In the
United Kingdom
Civil Defence work is carried out by Emergency Responders under the
Civil Contingencies Act 2004
, with assistance from voluntary groups such as
Joint Civil Aid Corps
,
RAYNET
,
Search and Rescue
Teams and
4x4 Response
. In
Ireland
, the
Civil Defence
is still very much an active organization and is occasionally called upon for its Auxiliary Fire Service and ambulance/rescue services when emergencies such as
flash flooding
occur and require additional manpower. The organization has units of trained
firemen
and
medical responders
based in key areas around the country.
By country
[
edit
]
See also
[
edit
]
General:
Notes and references
[
edit
]
- ^
Baker, Lord John
(1978),
Enterprise vs Bureaucracy ? The Development of Structural Air Raid Precautions during the 2nd World War
, Pergamon Press
- ^
"Battle of Britain | European history [1940]"
.
Encyclopedia Britannica
. Retrieved
2018-10-07
.
- ^
Clodfelter, Micheal (2017-05-09).
Warfare and armed conflicts : a statistical encyclopedia of casualty and other figures, 1492?2015
(Fourth ed.). Jefferson, North Carolina.
ISBN
978-0-7864-7470-7
.
OCLC
959922692
.
{{
cite book
}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
link
)
- ^
Leatherdale, Duncan (2015-08-11).
"How dangerous are unexploded bombs?"
.
BBC News
. Retrieved
2018-10-07
.
- ^
Higginbotham, Adam.
"There Are Still Thousands of Tons of Unexploded Bombs in Germany, Left Over From World War II"
.
Smithsonian
. Retrieved
2018-10-07
.
- ^
Robinson, Debbie.
"University of Exeter"
.
humanities.exeter.ac.uk
. Archived from
the original
on 2018-10-07
. Retrieved
2018-10-07
.
- ^
"History of Civil Air Patrol ? Civil Air Patrol ? United States Air Force Auxiliary"
.
- ^
Texas Wing Civil Air Patrol 2014 Summer Encampment Standard Operating Instructions (SOI)
- ^
"About the Coast Guard Auxiliary and District 11 Southern Region"
.
United States Coast Guard Auxiliary -District 11 Southern Region
. 2016-05-14
. Retrieved
2016-08-19
.
- ^
United States. President; United States. Office of the Federal Register (1958).
Code of federal regulations: President
. Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Service, General Services Administration. pp. 752?.
- ^
Nuclear Regulatory Commission (U S ) (July 2009).
Nuclear Regulatory Legislation
. Government Printing Office. pp. 52?.
ISBN
978-0-16-083614-5
.
- ^
a
b
Congress (October 2009).
United States Code, 2006, Supplement 1, January 4, 2007 to January 8, 2008
. Government Printing Office. pp. 137?.
ISBN
978-0-16-083512-4
.
- ^
McReynolds, David (2008). "Ralph DiGia, 1914?2008".
The Catholic Worker
.
LXXV
(March?April): 6.
- ^
Barnett, Nicholas (2015-07-03).
"
'No protection against the H-bomb': press and popular reactions to the Coventry civil defence controversy, 1954"
(PDF)
.
Cold War History
.
15
(3): 277?300.
doi
:
10.1080/14682745.2014.968558
.
hdl
:
10026.1/9392
.
ISSN
1468-2745
.
S2CID
154550156
.
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on 2020-03-06.
- ^
National Security Resources Board. United States Civil Defense. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office (GPO), 1950. LCCN 51060552.
- ^
Scheibach, Michael, ed. (2009).
"In Case Atom Bombs Fall": An Anthology of Governmental Explanations, Instructions and Warnings from the 1940s to the 1960s
. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company.
ISBN
978-0-7864-4541-7
.
- ^
Hans M. Kristensen 2012, "Estimated US-Russian Nuclear Warhead Inventories 1977?2018.
Archived
2015-01-12 at the
Wayback Machine
"
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a
b
"Net Evaluation Subcommittee. page 27"
(PDF)
.
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Richard Pipes (1977).
"Why the Soviet Union Thinks It Could Fight and Win a Nuclear War"
(PDF)
. Commentary
Reed College
. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on December 14, 2013
. Retrieved
September 4,
2013
.
- ^
Richard Pipes (1977).
"Why the Soviet Union thinks it can fight and win a Nuclear War"
.
Commentary
. Retrieved
April 21,
2013
.
- ^
Burr, William; Savranskaya, Svetlana, eds. (September 11, 2009).
"Previously Classified Interviews with Former Soviet Officials Reveal U.S. Strategic Intelligence Failure Over Decades"
.
Washington, D.C.
Retrieved
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2013
.
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Captain John W. Dorough Jr.
"Soviet Civil Defense U.S.S.R. preparations for industrial-base war survival"
. Air University Review, March?April 1977. Archived from
the original
on December 17, 2013
. Retrieved
September 4,
2013
.
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Leon Goure Reviewed by John C. Campbell (1977).
"War Survival in Soviet Strategy: USSR Civil Defense"
.
Foreign Affairs
.
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Richard Pipes (1977).
"Why the Soviet Union Thinks It Could Fight and Win a Nuclear War"
(PDF)
. Commentary
Reed College
. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on December 14, 2013
. Retrieved
September 4,
2013
.
- ^
[Was There a Real "Mineshaft Gap"? Bomb Shelters in the USSR, 1945?1962 Edward Geist doi.org/10.1162/JCWS_a_00219]
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"Chernobyl: Disaster, Response & Fallout - HISTORY"
.
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(in French)
Daniele Mariani,
"A chacun son bunker"
,
Swissinfo
, 23 October 2009 (page visited on 5 August 2015).
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Smith, Melissa (1 June 2010).
"Architects of Armageddon: the Home Office Scientific Advisers' Branch and civil defence in Britain, 1945?68†"
.
The British Journal for the History of Science
.
43
(2): 149?180.
doi
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.
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– via Cambridge Core.
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Thomas, Roger J.C. (October 2016).
"Civil Defence: From the First World War to the Cold War"
. Historic England
. Retrieved
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.
Recruitment continued well into the 1960s, until the financial crisis of the mid 1960s resulted in the standing-down of the Civil Defence Corps in 1968.
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"Hawaii Emergency Management Agency"
. Archived from
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. Retrieved
2010-01-25
.
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]
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Ball, Deborah (2011-06-25).
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Foulkes, Imogen (2007-02-10).
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BBC News
.
External links
[
edit
]
- Greece
- Large gallery of Bulgaria's Civil Defense Mechanization
(archived link)
- The UK Civil Defence Project ? History & Photos
Archived
2010-01-25 at the
Wayback Machine
- National Civil Defence College, Nagpur INDIA
Archived
2009-02-12 at the
Wayback Machine
- Special Event Amateur Ham Radio Station operated from Bangalore, INDIA
- Protezione Civile
Italian Civil Defense
- Dublin Civil Defence
Ireland
- SEBEV Search and Rescue
(originally a Civil Defence team in the UK)
- Civil Protection
(
Ministry of Interior
,
Spain
).
- Civil Protection Villena ? Spain
- Civil Defense Logo dies at 67, and Some Mourn its Passing
,
The New York Times
, 1 December 2006 by David Dunlap.
- Cold War Era Civil Defense Museum
? Features much historical information about Civil Defense history, its equipment and methods, and many historical photographs and posters.
- Annotated bibliography for civil defense from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues
- The American Civil Defense Association
- Civil Defense Caves
? Cold War community getaway in case of nuclear war located in Idaho
- Comprehensive Emergency Management Reference Material Repository
Archived
2014-01-31 at the
Wayback Machine
- Ready.gov
? The official preparedness site of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security
- "Civil Defence"
? A site with details of the UK's Civil Defence preparations, including those implemented during the Cold War such as the
Burlington
Central Government War HQ., at Corsham, Wiltshire.
- Emergency Planning in Lincolnshire
Archived
2006-05-19 at the
Wayback Machine
- The official Civil Defence site for the Republic of Ireland
- The official Civil Defense site of Sao Paulo State ? Brazil
Archived
2006-09-02 at the
Wayback Machine
- Doctors for Disaster Preparedness
- Physicians for Civil Defense
- Dutch civil defense instructions in English
- Emergency Management Portal
? online resources for emergency planners and managers
- The Norwegian Civil Defence
- German Federal Agency for Technical Relief
Archived
2014-05-11 at the
Wayback Machine
? THW Technisches Hilfswerk
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