Variety of grape mainly used to make wine
"Moreau blanc" redirects here. For another French wine grape that is also known as Moreau blanc, see
Gouais blanc
.
"Gentil blanc" redirects here. For another wine grape that is also known as Gentil blanc, see
Chasselas
.
"Auvernat blanc" redirects here. For another wine grape that is also known as Auvernat blanc and shares several other synonyms with Chardonnay, see
Savagnin
.
Chardonnay
|
---|
|
Chardonnay grapes
|
Color of berry skin
| White
|
---|
Also called
| Aubaine, Beaunois, Gamay blanc, Melon blanc (
more
)
|
---|
Notable regions
| Worldwide
|
---|
Notable wines
| Chablis
, white
Burgundy
,
Champagne
,
Italian Franciacorta
|
---|
Ideal soil
| Chalk, limestone
|
---|
Hazards
| Millerandage
,
powdery mildew
,
frost
and
coulure
|
---|
VIVC
number
| 2455
|
---|
|
Cool climate
| Lean, crisp, high acidity
|
---|
Medium climate
| Honey, tropical fruit
|
---|
Chardonnay
(
,
,
[1]
[2]
French:
[?a?d?n?]
ⓘ
) is a green-skinned
grape variety
used in the production of
white wine
. The variety originated in the
Burgundy wine
region of eastern
France
, but is now grown wherever wine is produced, from
England
to
New Zealand
. For new and developing wine regions, growing Chardonnay is seen as a '
rite of passage
' and an easy entry into the international wine market.
[3]
The Chardonnay grape itself is neutral, with many of the flavors commonly associated with the wine being derived from such influences as
terroir
and
oak
.
[4]
It is vinified in many different styles, from the lean, crisply mineral wines of
Chablis
, France, to
New World wines
with oak and tropical fruit flavors. In cool climates (such as Chablis and the
Carneros AVA
of
California
), Chardonnay wine tends to be medium to light body with noticeable
acidity
and flavors of green plum, apple, and pear. In warmer locations (such as the
Adelaide Hills
and
Mornington Peninsula
in
Australia
and
Gisborne
and
Marlborough
region of New Zealand), the flavors become more citrus, peach, and melon, while in very warm locations (such as the
Central Coast AVA
of California), more fig and tropical fruit notes such as banana and mango come out. Wines that have gone through
malolactic fermentation
tend to have softer acidity and fruit flavors with buttery mouthfeel and hazelnut notes.
[5]
Chardonnay is an important component of many
sparkling wines
around the world, including
Champagne
and
Franciacorta
in
Italy
. Chardonnay's popularity peaked in the late 1980s, then gave way to a backlash among those wine connoisseurs who saw the grape as a leading negative component of the globalization of wine. Nonetheless, it is one of the most widely planted
grape varieties
, with 210,000 hectares (520,000 acres) worldwide, second only to
Airen
among white wine grapes and fifth among all wine grapes.
[6]
History
[
edit
]
For much of its history, a connection was assumed between Chardonnay and
Pinot noir
or
Pinot blanc
. In addition to being found in the same region of France for centuries,
ampelographers
noted that the leaves of these plants have near-identical shape and structure.
Pierre Galet
disagreed with this assessment, believing that Chardonnay was unrelated to any other major grape variety.
Viticulturalists
Maynard Amerine
and
Harold Olmo
proposed descent from a wild
Vitis vinifera
vine that was a step removed from white
Muscat
. Chardonnay's true origins were further obscured by vineyard owners in
Lebanon
and
Syria
, who claimed that the grape's ancestry could be traced to the Middle East, from where it was introduced to Europe by returning
Crusaders
. Little external evidence supports this theory.
[7]
Another theory stated that it originated from an ancient
indigenous
vine found in
Cyprus
.
[8]
Modern
DNA fingerprinting
research at
University of California, Davis
, now suggests that Chardonnay is the result of a cross between the Pinot noir and
Gouais blanc
(Heunisch) grape varieties.
[4]
The
Romans
are thought to have brought Gouais blanc from
Croatia
, and it was widely cultivated by peasants in
eastern France
.
[9]
The Pinot of the French
aristocracy
grew in close proximity to the Gouais blanc, giving the two ample opportunity to interbreed. Since the two parents were genetically distant, many of the crosses showed
hybrid vigour
and were selected for further propagation. These "successful" crosses included Chardonnay and siblings such as
Aligote
,
Aubin vert
,
Auxerrois
,
Bachet noir
,
Beaunoir
,
Franc Noir de la-Haute-Saone
,
Gamay Blanc Gloriod
,
Gamay noir
,
Melon
,
Knipperle
,
Peurion
,
Roublot
,
Sacy
,
[10]
and
Dameron
.
[11]
Clones, crossing, and mutations
[
edit
]
As of 2006, 34
clonal varieties
of Chardonnay could be found in vineyards throughout France; most of these were developed at the
University of Burgundy
in
Dijon
. The so-called "Dijon clones" are bred for their adaptive attributes, with vineyard owners planting the clonal variety best suited to their
terroir
and which will produce the characteristics that they are seeking in the wine. Examples include the lower-
yielding
clones 'Dijon-76', '95' and '96' that produce more flavor-concentrated clusters. 'Dijon-77' and '809' produce more aromatic wines with a "grapey" perfume, while 'Dijon-75', '78', '121', '124', '125' and '277' are more vigorous and higher-yielding clones. New World varieties include the '
Mendoza
' clone, which produced some of the early California Chardonnays. The 'Mendoza' clone is prone to develop
millerandage
, also known as "hens and chicks", where the berries develop unevenly.
[4]
In places such as
Oregon
, the use of newer Dijon clones has had some success in those regions of the
Willamette Valley
with climates similar to that of Burgundy.
[8]
Chardonnay has served as parent to several French-American
hybrid
grapes, as well as
crossings
with other
V. vinifera
varieties. Examples include the hybrid
Chardonel
, which was a Chardonnay and
Seyval blanc
cross produced in 1953 at the
New York State Agricultural Experiment Station
.
Mutations
of the Chardonnay grape include the rare pink-berried 'Chardonnay Rose'; also 'Chardonnay Blanc Musque', which produces an intensely aromatic wine.
[4]
Chardonnay Blanc Musque is mostly found around the
Maconnais
village of
Clesse
and sometimes confused with the 'Dijon-166' clone planted in
South Africa
, which yields
Muscat
-like aromas.
[8]
In the 1930s, Chardonnay was crossed with a
Seibel grape
to create the hybrid grape
Ravat blanc
.
[12]
Viticulture
[
edit
]
Chardonnay has a wide-ranging reputation for relative ease of cultivation and ability to adapt to different conditions. The grape is very "malleable", in that it reflects and takes on the impression of its
terroir
and
winemaker
. It is a highly vigorous vine, with extensive leaf cover which can inhibit the energy and nutrient uptake of its grape clusters. Vineyard managers counteract this with aggressive pruning and canopy management. When Chardonnay vines are planted densely, they are forced to compete for resources and funnel energy into their grape clusters. In certain conditions, the vines can be very high-yielding, but the wine produced from such vines suffers a drop in quality if yields go much beyond 80
hl
/ha (4.5
tons
per acre). Producers of premium Chardonnay limit yields to less than half this amount.
[4]
Sparkling wine producers tend not to focus as much on limiting yields, since concentrated flavors are not as important as the wine's finesse.
Harvesting
time is crucial to winemaking, with the grape rapidly losing
acidity
as soon as it
ripens
. Some viticultural hazards include the risk of damage from springtime
frost
, as Chardonnay is an early-budding vine ? usually a week after Pinot noir. To combat the threat of frost, a method developed in Burgundy involves aggressive pruning just prior to budburst. This "shocks" the vine and delays budburst up to two weeks, which is often long enough for warmer weather to arrive.
[8]
Millerandage
and
coulure
can also pose problems, along with
powdery mildew
attacking the thin skin of the grapes.
[4]
Because of Chardonnay's early ripening, it can thrive in
wine regions
with short growing seasons, and in regions such as Burgundy, can be harvested before autumn rain sets in and brings the threat of rot.
[7]
While Chardonnay can adapt to almost all
vineyard soils
, the three it seems to like most are
chalk
,
clay
, and
limestone
, all very prevalent throughout Chardonnay's traditional "homeland". The
Grand crus
of
Chablis
are planted on hillsides composed of
Kimmeridgian
marl
, limestone, and chalk. The outlying regions, falling under the more basic "Petit Chablis"
appellation
, are planted on
portlandian limestone
which produces wines with less finesse. Chalk beds are found throughout the
Champagne
region, and the
Cote-d'Or
has many areas composed of limestone and clay. In Burgundy, the amount of limestone to which the Chardonnay vines are exposed also seems to have some effect on the resulting wine. In the
Meursault
region, the
premier cru
vineyards planted at
Meursault-Charmes
have
topsoil
almost 2 m (79 in) above limestone and the resulting wines are very rich and rounded. In the nearby
Les Perrieres
vineyard, the topsoil is only around 30 cm (12 in) above the limestone and the wine from that region is much more powerful,
minerally
, and tight, needing longer in the bottle to develop fully. In other areas,
soil type
can compensate for lack of ideal climate conditions. In
South Africa
, for example, regions with stonier,
shaley
soils and high clay levels tend to produce lower-yielding and more Burgundian-style wine, despite having a discernibly warmer climate than France. In contrast, South African Chardonnay produced from more sandstone-based vineyards tend to be richer and more weighty.
[8]
Confusion with Pinot blanc
[
edit
]
Due to some
ampelographical
similarities, Pinot blanc and Chardonnay were often mistaken for each other and even today share many of the same synonyms. The grape vines, leaves, and clusters look identical at first glance, but some subtle differences are seen. The most visible of these can be observed as the grapes are ripening, with Chardonnay grapes taking on a more golden-green color than Pinot blanc grapes. On closer inspection, the grapevine shows slight differences in the texture and length of the hairs on the vine's
shoot
, and the
veins
of a Chardonnay leaf are "naked" near the
petiolar sinus
? the open area where the leaf connects to the stem is delineated by veins at the edge.
[8]
Cabernet Sauvignon is one of the few other
Vitis vinifera
grape vines to share this characteristic.
[13]
This confusion between Pinot blanc and Chardonnay was very pervasive throughout northern Italy, where the two vines grew interspersed in the vineyard and were blended in winemaking. The Italian government did not dispatch researchers to try to distinguish the two vines until 1978. A similar situation occurred in France, with the two vines being commonly confused until the mid-19th century, when ampelographers began combing through the vineyards of Chablis and Burgundy, identifying the true Chardonnay and weeding out the Pinot blanc.
[8]
France
[
edit
]
In France, Chardonnay is the second-most widely planted white grape variety just behind
Ugni blanc
and ahead of
Semillon
and
Sauvignon blanc
. The grape first rose to prominence in the
Chablis
and
Burgundy
regions. In
Champagne
, it is most often blended with Pinot noir and
Pinot Meunier
, but is also used to produce single
varietal
blanc de blancs
styles of
sparkling wine
. Chardonnay can be found in
Appellation d'origine controlee
(AOC) wines of the
Loire Valley
and
Jura wine
region, as well as the
vin de pays
wines of the
Languedoc
.
[4]
Burgundy
[
edit
]
Chardonnay is one of the dominant grapes in Burgundy, though Pinot noir vines outnumber it by nearly a three-to-one ratio. In addition to Chablis, Chardonnay is found in the
Cote d'Or
(largely in the
Cote de Beaune
), as well as the
Cote Chalonnaise
and
Maconnais
. It is grown in eight
grand cru
vineyards
; The "Montrachets"-
Montrachet
,
Criots-Batard-Montrachet
,
Batard-Montrachet
,
Chevalier-Montrachet
, and
Bienvenues-Batard-Montrachet
, as well as
Charlemagne
,
Corton-Charlemagne
, and
Le Musigny
. In addition to being the most expensive, the Burgundy examples of Chardonnay were long considered the benchmark standard of expressing
terroir
through Chardonnay. The Montrachets are noted for their high
alcohol
levels, often above 13%, as well as deep concentration of flavors. The vineyards around
Chassagne-Montrachet
tend to have a characteristic
hazelnut
aroma to them, while those of
Puligny-Montrachet
have more steely flavors. Both
grand cru
and
premier cru
examples from Corton-Charlemagne have been known to demonstrate
marzipan
, while Meursault wines tend to be the most round and buttery examples.
[4]
South of the Cote d'Or are the Cote Chalonnaise and Maconnais wine regions. The villages of
Mercurey
,
Montagny-les-Buxy
, and
Rully
are the largest producers of Chardonnay in the Cote Chalonnaise, with the best-made examples rivaling those of the Cote de Beaune. In the Maconnais, white wine production is centered on the town of
Macon
and the
Pouilly-Fuisse
region. The full-
bodied
wines of the Pouilly-Fuisse have long held
cult wine
status with prices that can rival the
grand cru
white burgundies. Further south, in the region of
Beaujolais
, Chardonnay has started to replace
Aligote
as the main white wine grape and is even replacing
Gamay
in some areas around
Saint-Veran
.
[4]
With the exception of Pouilly-Fuisse, the wines of the Maconnais are the closest Burgundy example to "New World" Chardonnay, though it is not identical. Typically, Macon blanc, basic Bourgogne, Beaujolais blanc, and Saint-Veran are meant to be consumed within two to three years of release. However, many of the well-made examples of white Burgundy from the Cote d'Or need at least three years in the bottle to develop enough to express the aromas and character of the wine. Hazelnut,
licorice
, and
spice
are some of the flavors that can develop as these wines
age
.
[3]
Chablis
[
edit
]
Chardonnay is the only permitted AOC grape variety in the Chablis region, with the wines there developing such worldwide recognition that the name "Chablis" has taken on somewhat generic connotations to mean any dry white wine, even those not made from Chardonnay. The name is protected in the
European Union
and for wine sold in the EU, "Chablis" refers only to the Chardonnay wine produced in this region of the
Yonne
departement
. The region sits on the outer edges of the
Paris Basin
. On the other side of the basin is the village of
Kimmeridge
in England, which gives its name to the Kimmeridgean soil that is located throughout Chablis. The French describe this soil as
argilo-calcaire
and is a composition of
clay
, limestone, and
fossilized
oyster shells
. The most expensive examples of Chardonnay from Chablis come from the seven Grand Cru vineyards that account for around 247 acres (100 ha) on the southwest side of one slope along the
Serein
River near the towns of Chablis?Blanchots, Bougros, Les Clos, Grenouilles, Preuses, Valmur, and Vaudesir. The wines from these crus most often capture the
gout de pierre a fusil
or "gunflint" quality that is characteristic of Chablis wine.
[14]
Chardonnay was believed to be first planted in Chablis by the
Cistercians
at
Pontigny Abbey
in the 12th century.
[15]
Today, the Chardonnay made in the Chablis region is one of the "purest" expression of the varietal character of the grape due to the simplistic style of winemaking favored in this region. Chablis winemakers want to emphasise the
terroir
of the
calcareous
soil and cooler climate that help maintain high acidity. The wines rarely go through
malolactic fermentation
or are exposed to
oak
(though its use is increasing). The biting, green apple-like acidity is a trademark of Chablis and can be noticeable in the bouquet. The acidity can mellow with age and Chablis are some of the longest-living examples of Chardonnay.
[7]
Some examples of Chablis can have an earthy "wet stone" flavor that can get mustier as it ages before mellowing into delicate
honeyed
notes.
[3]
The use of oak is controversial in the Chablis community, with some winemakers dismissing it as counter to the "Chablis style" or
terroir
, while others embrace its use, though not to the length that would characterise a "New World" Chardonnay. The winemakers who use oak tend to favor more neutral oak that does not impart the
vanilla
characteristic associated with American oak. The amount of "
char
" in the barrel is often very light, which limits the amount of "toastiness" perceived in the wine. The advocates of oak in Chablis point to the positive benefits of allowing limited
oxygenation
with the wine through the permeable oak barrels. This can have the effect of softening the wine and making the generally austere and acidic Chablis more approachable at a younger age.
[14]
Champagne
[
edit
]
In the Champagne, Chardonnay is one of three major grape varieties planted in the region. It is most commonly found in the
Aube
and
Marne
departments
which, combined with Chablis, accounted for more than half of all plantings of Chardonnay in France during the 20th century. In the
Cote des Blancs
(white slope) district of the Marne, Chardonnay thrives on the
chalk
soil. The three main villages around the Cote grow Chardonnay that emphasizes certain characteristics that the
Champagne producers
seek depending on their house style. The village of
Avize
grows grapes that produce the lightest wines,
Cramant
makes the most aromatic, and
Mesnil
produces wines with the most acidity. The Cote des Blancs is the only district in the Champagne region predominately planted with Chardonnay. In the four other main districts ? Aube,
Cote de Sezanne
,
Montagne de Reims
, and
Vallee de la Marne
? Chardonnay lags behind Pinot noir in planting. In the outlying region of
Aisne
, only Pinot Meunier has a significant presence. Despite being less planted, the
Blanc de Blancs
style of Champagne (made from only Chardonnay grapes) is far more commonly produced than
Blanc de Noirs
. This is partly because Pinot noir and Pinot Meunier produce very coarse and heavy wines that lack the finesse and balance that Chardonnay brings to the mix. Non
sparkling
still wine Chardonnay is produced under the
Coteaux Champenois AOC
. The wine is much more acidic than that of Chablis and is normally made bone-dry.
[7]
Despite receiving the same amount of sunshine as the Chablis region, Chardonnay grapes in Champagne rarely attain full ripeness due to the
mean
temperature of the region being around 10 °C (50 °F), barely above the minimum average temperature needed to ripen grapes. Therefore, the Chardonnay grapes do not fully develop their fruit flavors and the still version of Champagne can taste very "un-Chardonnay"-like because of this. However, it does lessen the premium on needing to keep yields low that other wine regions battle, since not much flavor is going to develop in the grapes, anyway. Rather, the element in Chardonnay that Champagne wine-makers look for is the finesse and balance of acidity that it brings to the blend. Some flavors that can emerge from, particularly with extended time on its
lees
, include creamy and nuttiness with some floral notes.
[8]
Other French regions
[
edit
]
Champagne, Chablis, and Burgundy account for more than three-fifths of all Chardonnay plantings in France. The next-largest concentration is found in the
Languedoc
, where it was first planted around the town of
Limoux
and up to 30% can be blended with
Mauzac
in the sparkling
Blanquette de Limoux
.
[3]
Every year since 1991, Chardonnay production is celebrated in
Limoux
during the
Toques et Clochers
festival. By 2000, more than 9,000 hectares (22,000 acres) were planted, with many being used for wines under the
Vin de Pays d'Oc
. These wines were unique in that they were some of the first examples of Chardonnay to be
varietally labeled
as "Chardonnay". Other French wine regions with Chardonnay plantings include
Alsace
,
Ardeche
,
Jura
,
Savoie
, and the
Loire Valley
.
[4]
In Jura, it is used to create
vin de paille
dessert wines
. Here, the grape is known as Melon d'Arbois or Gamay blanc and is sometimes blended with
Savagnin
. It is most widely found in
Arbois
,
Cotes du Jura
, and
L'Etoile AOCs
. In the Loire, up to 20% of Chardonnay can be included in the
Chenin blanc
-based wines of
Anjou
blanc
and more producers are using the grape to soften some of the edges of Chenin blanc.
[7]
It can also be used in the sparkling wines of
Saumur
and some
Muscadet
producers have begun experimenting with oak-aged Chardonnay.
[3]
North America
[
edit
]
In North America, particularly
California
, Chardonnay found another region where it could thrive and produce a style of wine noticeably different from that of France. It is the dominant white wine variety of the area, overtaking
Riesling
in 1990. In the
United States
, it is found most notably in California,
Oregon
,
Texas
,
Virginia
, and
Washington
,
[4]
but also in
Alabama
,
Arizona
,
Arkansas
,
Colorado
,
Connecticut
,
Georgia
,
Idaho
,
Illinois
,
Indiana
,
Iowa
,
Maryland
,
Massachusetts
,
Michigan
,
Minnesota
,
Missouri
,
New Hampshire
,
New Jersey
,
New Mexico
,
New York
,
North Carolina
,
Ohio
,
Oklahoma
,
South Carolina
,
Tennessee
, and
Vermont wine
. In
Canada
, Chardonnay is found in
British Columbia
,
Nova Scotia
,
Ontario
, and
Quebec
.,
[16]
and in Mexico is found in Baja California(Valle de Guadalupe) and in Coahuila(Valle de Parras) states.
California
[
edit
]
The first successful commercial production of California Chardonnay was from plantings in the
Livermore Valley AVA
.
Wente Vineyards
developed a Chardonnay clone that was used to introduce the grape variety in several Californian vineyards throughout the 1940s. In the 1950s,
James David Zellerbach
, one-time
US Ambassador
to Italy in Rome, started
Hanzell Vineyards
winery and dedicated it to making Burgundian-style Chardonnay. His success encouraged other Californian winemakers to follow suit and culminated in
Chateau Montelena
's victory over Burgundy Chardonnay in the 1976
blind tasting
event conducted by French judges known as the
Judgment of Paris
. In response, the demand for Californian Chardonnay increased and Californian winemakers rushed to increase plantings.
[17]
In the 1980s, the popularity of Californian Chardonnay increased so much, the number of vines planted in the state eclipsed that of France by 1988. By 2005, nearly 100,000 acres (40,000 ha) accounted for almost 25% of the world's total Chardonnay plantings. The early trend was to imitate the great Burgundy wines, but this soon gave way to more rich buttery and
oaked
styles.
[4]
Starting with the 1970s, the focus was on harvesting the grapes at more advanced degrees of ripeness and higher
Brix
levels. New oak barrels were used to produce wines that were big in body and
mouthfeel
.
Frank J. Prial
of
The New York Times
was an early critic of this style, particularly because of the lack of
"food friendliness"
that was common with these massive wines.
[7]
Another criticism of California Chardonnays, and one that has been levied against other Californian wines, is the very high
alcohol levels
which can make a wine seem out of balance. In recent years, California winemakers have been using process such as
reverse osmosis
and
spinning cones
to bring the alcohol levels down to 12 to 14%.
[8]
The California wine regions that seem to favor producing premium quality Chardonnay are the ones that are most influenced, climatically, by coastal
fogs
that can slow the ripening of the grape and give it more time to develop its flavors. The regions of
Alexander Valley
,
Los Carneros
,
Santa Maria Valley
,
Russian River Valley
, and other parts of
Sonoma County
have shown success in producing wines that reflect more Burgundian styles.
[3]
Other regions often associated with Chardonnay include
Napa Valley
,
Monterey County
, and
Santa Barbara County
. The California
Central Valley
is home to many mass-produced Chardonnay brands, as well as
box
and
jug wine
production. While the exact style of the wine varies by producer, some of the
terroir
characteristics associated with California Chardonnay include "flinty" notes with the Russian River Valley and mango and
guava
from Monterey. A large portion of the Californian sparkling wine industry uses Chardonnay grapes from Carneros, Alexander, and Russian River valleys, with these areas attracting the attention of Champagne producers such as
Bollinger
,
Louis Roederer
,
Moet et Chandon
, and the
Taittinger family
, which have opened up wineries in last few decades.
[8]
New York
[
edit
]
Chardonnay was one of the first European grape varieties to have been grown commercially east of the Rocky Mountains. After three centuries of failure with
V. vinifera
, this achievement was realized in the
Finger Lakes
region of upstate New York. Frenchman Charles Fournier and Russian
Konstantin Frank
experimented with Chardonnay and other varietals in hopes of producing sparkling wines based on Old World grapes for the Gold Seal wine company. In the late 1950s, they succeeded in harvesting the first commercial quantities of European grapes in eastern North America.
[18]
Frank went on to found Konstantin Frank Vinifera Wine Cellars which helped demonstrate that a winery in the eastern US can produce European-style wines as a basis for a winery business. Chardonnay became an important part of that strategy.
New York, like Burgundy and Washington, is a cool-climate viticultural region. Being cold tolerant, the Chardonnay grape is well suited for New York. Not only can it endure its cold winters, but also buds late, reducing the risk of spring frosts. New York's comparatively cooler growing season causes slower ripening, requiring a longer time on the vine, which allows the grapes to develop greater complexity and character at more reasonable sugar levels than warmer Chardonnay-producing regions. New York has subsequently developed significant plantings of the variety
[19]
since Fournier and Frank's early experiments.
Other states
[
edit
]
Washington
Chardonnays can be very similar to Californian Chardonnays, but tend to have more emphasis on fruit than creaminess. In 2000, it was the most widely planted premium wine grape in the state. Rather than using Dijon clones, Washington vineyards are planted with clones developed at the University of California-Davis that are designed to take longer to ripen in the warmer weather of the state's wine regions. This allows winemakers to maintain the acidity levels that balance the fruity and flint earthiness that have characterized Washington Chardonnay.
Apple
notes are common, and depending on producer and appellation, can range from flavors of '
Golden Delicious
' and '
Fuji
' to '
Gala
' and '
Jonathan
'.
[20]
In Oregon, the introduction of Dijon clones from Burgundy has helped to adapt the grape to the Oregon climate and soils.
[4]
Canada
[
edit
]
In
Canada
, Chardonnay has seen some success with rich, oaky styles produced in
Ontario
and lighter styles produced in
Quebec
and
British Columbia
.
[8]
In 2009, Le Clos Jordanne winery, of Jordan Village on the Niagara Peninsula, Ontario, received critical acclaim for its 2005 Claystone Terrace Chardonnay, which won the top spot for Chardonnay in the "Judgement of Montreal" experts’ tasting. This recognition, which caught the attention of the wine community, resulted from a blind tasting held in Quebec for
Cellier
magazine. Thirty-three years after the "Judgment of Paris",
Cellier
organized a blind tasting in Montreal based on the Judgment of Paris. In the "Judgement of Montreal", 10 judges at the
Cellier
tasting assessed 16 red and 14 white wines, primarily from France and California. The Chardonay from Le Clos Jordanne placed first out of the 14 white wines, some of which were notable international wines, including: Chateau Montelena, Mer Soleil, Kumeu River, an aged reserve wine from Rosemount Estates, and a number of Burgundian entrants from producers such as Drouhin, Lamy, Boisset,
Maison Louis Jadot
, and others. Other great examples of Ontario chardonnay include Closson Chase and Norman Hardie from the Prince Edward County region, and Tawse Winery, Hidden Bench Vineyards, and Southbrook Vineyards from the Niagara region.
The Chardonnay vintages of the early 1990s from British Columbia helped generate international attention to the quality of Canadian wines apart from
ice wine
varietals. In British Columbia, Chardonnay from the
Okanagan
are characterized by delicate citrus fruits. They are typically light-bodied, but producers who use barrel fermentation and oak aging can produce fuller-bodied wines.
[21]
Australia and New Zealand
[
edit
]
Like many grape varieties, Chardonnay first came to
Australia
in the collection of
James Busby
in 1832, but it only really took off in the 1950s. It is most significant in
South Australia
,
New South Wales
? especially the
Hunter Valley
- and
Victoria
.
[22]
One of the first commercially successful Chardonnays was produced by
Murray Tyrrell
in the Hunter Valley in 1971. Tyrell's vineyard was planted with Chardonnay cuttings that he "
borrowed
" from
Penfolds
' experimental plantings by hopping over their barb-wire fence one night and pruning their vines.
[8]
[23]
The
export
driven Australian wine industry was well situated for the Chardonnay boom of the 1980s and 1990s and Australia responded with a unique style of wine that was characterized by big fruit flavors and easy approachability. To compensate for the very warm climate, richness was enhanced by the use of oak chips and acid was added during
fermentation
. During this period the number of Chardonnay plants increased fivefold and by 1990 it was the most widely planted white wine grape in Australia and third most planted overall behind
Shiraz
and Cabernet Sauvignon. Early in the 21st century, demand outpaced supply and there was a shortage of Chardonnay grapes which prompted Australian winemakers to introduce new blending partners like Semillon (known as "SemChard") and Colombard.
[4]
Being a rather neutral grape, Australian winemakers first approached Chardonnay in the same manner they were making wine from the similarly neutral
Sultana
grape. Aromatic
yeast
were added and
maceration
was extended to get more flavors from skin contact.
[8]
While the style of Australian Chardonnay is mostly characterized by the mass-produced products of the hot
Riverland region
, the cooler climates of the
Southern Highlands
in New South Wales, Victoria and
Tasmania
have been creating more crisp, less oaked wines with lime notes.
[4]
In the
Cowra
region, Chardonnay's
citrus
notes are emphasized while Hunter Valley examples have more richness and smoky notes. The
Adelaide Hills
and
Yarra Valley
produce a more Burgundian style while
Mount Barker
in the
Great Southern
wine region of
Western Australia
produces Chardonnay that more closely resembles those of Chablis.
[7]
A rare, isolated clone exists in the
Mudgee
region that locals believe traces its ancestry back to some of the first vines brought to Australia in the 19th century. While the wine made from this clone is not particularly distinguished, it can still be of very good quality.
[3]
Overall, there has been a shift in style since the 1980s from deep golden, oily wines with
melon
and
butterscotch
flavors to lighter, paler Chardonnays with more structure and notes of white
peaches
and
nectarines
. Sparkling wines from Chardonnay are produced in the cool regions of
Geelong
, Adelaide Hills,
Macedon Ranges
and
Tasmania
.
[8]
Despite being more famous for its Sauvignon blanc production, Chardonnay was New Zealand's most widely planted grape variety from 1990 till 2002 when Sauvignon blanc finally surpassed it. The east coast of the
North Island
, in places like
Hawke's Bay
and
Wairarapa
, have seen the most success with Chardonnay wine that has noticeable acidity and leanness.
[4]
As better clonal varieties are discovered and planted, the overall quality of New Zealand Chardonnay have increased, particularly from places like
Canterbury
,
Marlborough
and
Nelson
.
[8]
Some producers in the
Gisborne
region have recently developed a cult following for their Chardonnay among New Zealand wine drinkers.
[3]
While many New Zealand winemakers are still developing a characteristic style, the Chardonnay produced so far have emphasized the grape's affinity for oak.
[7]
Italy
[
edit
]
Chardonnay has a long history in
Italy
but for a large part of it, the grape was commonly confused with Pinot blanc?often with both varieties interplanted in the same vineyard and blended together. This happened despite the fact that Chardonnay grapes get more golden-yellow in color close to harvest time and can be visually distinguished from Pinot blanc. In the
Trentino-Alto Adige/Sudtirol
region this confusion appeared in the synonyms for each grape, with Pinot blanc being known as "Weissburgunder" (White Burgundy) and Chardonnay was known as "Gelber Weissburgunder" (Golden White Burgundy). By the late 20th century, more concentrated efforts were put into identifying Chardonnay and making pure varietal versions of the wine. In 1984, it was granted its first
Denominazione di origine controllata
(DOC) in the province of
South Tyrol
. By 2000, it was Italy's fourth most widely planted white wine grape.
[4]
Though many varietal forms of Chardonnay are produced, and the numbers are increasing, for most of its history in Italian winemaking Chardonnay was a blending grape. Besides Pinot bianco, Chardonnay can be found in blends with
Albana
,
Catarratto
,
Cortese
,
Erbaluce
,
Favorita
,
Garganega
,
Grecanico
,
Incrocio Manzoni
,
Nuragus
,
Procanico
,
Ribolla Gialla
,
Verdeca
,
Vermentino
and
Viognier
. It even blended into a dry
White Zinfandel
-style
Nebbiolo
wine that is made from the white juice of the red Nebbiolo grape prior to being dyed with skin contact.
[8]
Most Chardonnay plantings are located in the northern wine regions, though plantings can be found throughout Italy as far south as
Sicily
and
Apulia
. In
Piedmont
and
Tuscany
, the grape is being planted in sites that are less favorable to
Dolcetto
and
Sangiovese
respectively. In
Lombardy
, the grape is often used for
spumante
and in the
Veneto
it is often blended with Garganega to give more weight and structure to the wine. Chardonnay is also found in the
Valle d'Aosta DOC
and
Friuli-Venezia Giulia wine
region.
[4]
South Africa
[
edit
]
Due to quarantine restrictions, plant
cuttings
were often
smuggled
into
South Africa
in the 1970s and 1980s and many times were misidentified as to what grape variety it really was. A large portion of the Chardonnay plantings from this period turned out to be
Auxerrois blanc
. A similar event happened in the German wine region of Baden during the 1980s.
[8]
By the late 1990s, efforts to promote "authentic" Chardonnay helped to increase plantings and by 2004 it was the third-most widely planted white wine grape behind Chenin blanc and
Colombard
.
[4]
Winemakers in the
Western Cape
have experimented blending Chardonnay with Riesling and Sauvignon blanc.
[3]
Other wine regions
[
edit
]
Outside of the regions discussed above, Chardonnay can be found in cooler climate sites in
Italy
,
Greece
,
Israel
and
Lebanon
as well as
Austria
,
Bulgaria
,
Croatia
, England,
Georgia
,
Germany
,
Slovakia
,
Hungary
,
Macedonia
,
Moldova
,
Portugal
,
Romania
,
Slovenia
,
Spain
,
Serbia
,
Switzerland
and
Ukraine
. In Austria, the grape varieties known as
Feinburgunder
in
Burgenland
&
Vienna
and
Morillon
in
Styria
was not identified as Chardonnay till the late 1980s. Today, Austrian Chardonnays range from the rich, oaked aged varieties to leaner, more aromatic styles based on Austrian Rieslings to
sweet
late harvest
styles. In nearby Germany, this distinctly French wine grape was slow to gain a footing being only officially sanctioned since 1991. Today it is most commonly found in the
Baden
,
Palatinate
and
Rheinhessen
regions. In Switzerland, Chardonnay is found mostly around
Bundner Herrschaft
,
Geneva
and
Valais
. In Spain, Chardonnay has been increasingly used in the
sparkling wine
Cava
. It is also permitted in the
denominacion de origen
(DO) wines of
Costers del Segre
,
Navarra
and
Somontano
. In the wine regions of the
former Soviet Union
, Chardonnay has lagged behind in white wine grapes plantings in favor
Rkatsiteli
, Aligote and Riesling.
[4]
The Portuguese experimentation with Chardonnay has been mostly influenced by
flying winemakers
from Australia and the examples produced so far are very New World in style.
[8]
New World wine regions
[
edit
]
In the cool-climate wine regions of
Argentina
's
Uco Valley
, Chardonnay has started to develop a presence. In the 1990s, Chardonnay became the second most widely planted white grape variety in Argentina-second only
Torrontes
.
India
and
Uruguay
have been steadily increasing their plantings.
Winemaking
[
edit
]
Chardonnay lends itself to almost any style of wine making from dry still wines, to sparkling wines to sweet late harvest and even
botrytized
wines (though its susceptibility to other less favorable rot makes these wines rarer). The two winemaking decisions that most widely affect the result of a Chardonnay wine is whether or not to use
malolactic fermentation
and the degree of
oak influence
used for the wine. With malolactic fermentation (or MLF), the harder
malic acid
gets converted into the softer
lactic acid
, and
diacetyl
which creates the "
buttery
-ness" that is associated with some styles of Chardonnay.
[24]
The wines that do not go through MLF will have more green (unripe) apple-like flavors. Oak can be introduced during
fermentation
or after in the form of the
barrel aging
.
[4]
Depending on the amount of charring that the oak was treated with, this can introduce a "toastiness" and flavors that many wine drinkers mistake as a
characteristic
of the grape itself. These flavors can include
caramel
,
cream
,
smoke
,
spice
,
coconut
,
cinnamon
,
cloves
and
vanilla
.
[25]
Other winemaking decisions that can have a significant effect include the temperature of fermentation and what time, if any, that the wine allowed to spend aging on the
lees
. Burgundian winemaking tends to favor extended contact on the lees and even "stirring up" the lees within the wine while it is aging in the barrel in a process known as
batonnage
. Colder fermentation temperatures produce more "tropical" fruit flavors like
mango
and
pineapple
.
[8]
The "Old World" style of winemaking favors the use of wild, or ambient
yeast
, though some will also use specially cultivated yeast that can impart aromatic qualities to the wine. A particular style of yeast used in Champagne is the
Prise de Mousse
that is cultivated for use worldwide in sparkling Chardonnay wines. A potential drawback of using wild yeast is that the fermentation process can go very slowly with the results of the yeasts being very unpredictable and producing potentially a very different wine each year. One Burgundian winemaker that favors the use of only wild yeast is
Domaine des Comtes Lafon
which had the fermentation of its 1963 Chardonnay batch take five years to complete when the fermentation process normally only takes a matter of weeks.
[8]
The time of harvesting is a crucial decision because the grape quickly begins to lose acidity as it ripens. For
sparkling wine production
, the grapes will be harvested early and slightly unripe to maintain the acid levels. Sparkling Chardonnay-based wines tend to exhibit more floral and steely flavors in their youth. As the wine ages, particularly if it spends significant time on lees, the wines will develop "toasty" notes.
[3]
Chardonnay grapes usually have little trouble developing sugar content, even in cooler climates, which translates into high potential alcohol levels and limits the need for
chaptalization
. On the flip side, low acid levels can be a concern which make the wine taste "flabby" and dull. Winemakers can counteract this by adding
tartaric acid
in a process known as "acidification". In cooler climates, the extract and acidity of Chardonnay is magnified which has the potential of producing very concentrated wines that can develop through bottle aging.
[7]
Chardonnay can blend well with other grapes and still maintain some of its unique character. The grapes most often blended with Chardonnay include Chenin blanc, Colombard and Semillon.
[4]
Wine style
[
edit
]
Due to the "malleability" of Chardonnay in winemaking and its ability to reflect its
terroir
, there is not one distinct universal "style" or set of constants that could be applied to Chardonnay made across the globe. According to
Jancis Robinson
, a sense of "smokiness" is one clue that could be picked up in a
blind tasting
of Chardonnay but there are many styles that do not have any "smokey" notes. Compared to other white wine grapes like Sauvignon blanc,
Gewurztraminer
and Viognier-Chardonnay has a more subtle and muted nose with no overwhelming aromatics that jump out of the wine glass. The identifying styles of Chardonnay are regionally based. For example, pineapple notes are more commonly associated with Chardonnay from Napa Valley while Chablis will have more notes of green apples.
[7]
While many examples of Chardonnay can benefit from a few years of bottle aging, especially if they have high acidity, most Chardonnays are meant to be consumed in their youth. A notable exception to this is the most premium examples of Chablis and white Burgundies.
[3]
With food
[
edit
]
Due to the wide range of styles, Chardonnay has the potential to be paired with a diverse spectrum of food types. It is most commonly paired with roast
chicken
and other
white meats
such as
turkey
. Heavily oak influenced Chardonnays do not pair well with more delicate
fish
and
seafood
dish. Instead, those wines tend to go better with
smoked fish
, spicy southeast
Asian cuisine
,
garlic
and
guacamole
dips.
[8]
The regional influences of Chardonnay can help it pair with different food styles. Chardonnays from Washington, which is characterized by maintaining more acidity, tend to pair well with
tomato-based
dishes and items featuring
sweet onions
. Older, more mellow Chardonnays are often paired with more "earthy" dishes like
mushroom
soup and aged
cheese
.
[20]
Popularity and backlash
[
edit
]
Chardonnay long had a reputation as one of France's great white wines, but due to the dominance of geographical
labeling
, the fact that Chardonnay was the grape behind white Burgundy was not widely known by the wine-drinking public. The success of California and new world Chardonnays, partly encouraged by the Californian showing at the
Judgment of Paris
wine tasting, brought varietal wine labeling to more prominence and the easy to pronounce Chardonnay grape was one of the largest beneficiaries. In the late 1980s, a sort of "Chardonnay-mania" developed as wine regions (particularly new and developing ones) dramatically increased their planting of the grape to meet the worldwide demand.
[4]
As more vineyards responded with massive new plantings of the variety, they found that fashions were changing again. The market was drinking more red wine, and there was a backlash against heavy, oaky, New World Chardonnays in favor of lighter wines such as
Pinot grigio
. There was a new fashion, "ABC" ? Anything But Chardonnay, identified by Frank Prial in 1995.
[26]
Another reason for the backlash was that Chardonnay was seen as a symbol of the globalization of wine, in which local grape varieties were grubbed up in favor of the big names demanded by international markets.
Oz Clarke
described a view of Chardonnay as "the ruthless coloniser and destroyer of the world's vineyards and the world's palates."
[27]
The criticism was centered on the habits of winemakers to pull out or give up on local varieties in order to plant more Chardonnay which offered potentially more income but lack the uniqueness and character of local varieties. Examples of this occurred in south Italy and Spain when ancient
Negroamaro
,
Primitivo
,
Grenache
and
Mataro
vineyards were ripped up in favor of new Chardonnay plantings.
[8]
Chardonnay became very fashionable in the 1990s, as the stereotypical drink of young urban women of the
Bridget Jones
generation.
By 2002, the association of chardonnay with suburban, unsophisticated tastes was being explored in Australian TV show
Kath & Kim
, where lower middle class characters mispronounce the varietal as 'kardonnay'.
Despite the backlash, Chardonnay remains very popular. In 2004 Chardonnay was estimated to be the world's 6th most widely grown grape variety, covering 179,300 hectares (443,000 acres).
[28]
Genetic modification
[
edit
]
Currently trials are being run on
genetically modified
Chardonnay. Trials are underway in the US and South Africa.
[29]
[30]
Synonyms
[
edit
]
Due to the worldwide recognition of the name of "Chardonnay", many of these synonyms have fallen out of favor as winemakers use the more marketable Chardonnay:
[7]
Arboisier, Arnaison blanc, Arnoison, Aubain, Aubaine, Auvergnat blanc, Auvernas, Auvernas blanc, Auvernat blanc, Auxeras, Auxerras blanc, Auxerrois blanc, Auxois, Auxois blanc, Bargeois blanc, Beaunois, Biela Klevanjika, Blanc de Champagne, Blanc de Cramant, Breisgauer Suessling, Breisgauer Sussling, Burgundi Feher, Chablis, Chardenai, Chardenay, Chardenet, Chardennet, Chardonay, Chardonnet, Chatenait, Chatey Petit, Chatte, Chaudenay, Chaudenet, Chaudent, Clavner, Clevner Weiss, Cravner, Epinette, Epinette blanc, Epinette blanche, Epinette de Champagne, Ericey blanc, Feher Chardonnay, Feherburgundi, Feinburgunder, Gamay blanc, Gelber Weissburgunder, Gentil blanc, Grosse Bourgogne, Klawner, Klevanjka Biela, Klevner, Lisant, Luisant, Luizannais, Luizant, Luzannois, Maconnais, Maurillon blanc, Melon blanc, Melon D'Arbois, Meroue,
[7]
Moreau blanc, Morillon blanc, Moulon, Noirien blanc, Obaideh, Petit Chatey, Petit Sainte-Marie, Petite Sainte Marie, Pineau blanc, Pino Sardone, Pino Shardone, Pinot Blanc a Cramant, Pinot Blanc Chardonnay, Pinot Chardonnay, Pinot de Bourgogne, Pinot Giallo, Pinot Planc, Plant de Tonnerre, Romere, Romeret, Rouci Bile, Rousseau, Roussot, Rulander Weiß, Sainte Marie Petite, Sardone, Shardone, Shardonne, Spater Weiß Burgunder, Weiß Burgunder (normally refers to Pinot blanc), Weiß Clevner, Weiß Edler, Weiß Elder, Weiß Klewner, Weiß Silber, Weißedler, Weißer Clevner, Weißer Rulander.
[11]
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
Wells, John C.
(2008).
Longman Pronunciation Dictionary
(3rd ed.). Longman.
ISBN
978-1-4058-8118-0
.
- ^
Jones, Daniel
(2011).
Roach, Peter
;
Setter, Jane
;
Esling, John
(eds.).
Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary
(18th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
ISBN
978-0-521-15255-6
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
k
Robinson, Jancis
(2003).
Jancis Robinson's Wine Course
(3rd ed.). Abbeville Press. pp. 101?06.
ISBN
0-7892-0883-0
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
k
l
m
n
o
p
q
r
s
t
u
v
w
Robinson, 2006, pp. 154?56.
- ^
Wine & Spirit Education Trust (2012).
Wines and Spirits: Understanding Style and Quality
(2nd ed.). London. pp. 6?9.
ISBN
9781905819157
.
{{
cite book
}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
link
)
- ^
"Distribution of the World's Grapevine Varieties"
(PDF)
.
oiv.int
.
International Organisation of Vine and Wine
. 2018-02-28. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 2018-03-01
. Retrieved
2018-03-01
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
k
l
J. Robinson
Vines, Grapes & Wines
pp. 106-113, Mitchell Beazley (1986)
ISBN
1-85732-999-6
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
k
l
m
n
o
p
q
r
s
t
u
v
Clarke, 2001, pp. 63-73.
- ^
"Chardonnay ? Wine International Association WIA"
. Retrieved
2024-03-17
.
- ^
Clarke, 2001, pg 112
- ^
a
b
Maul, Erika; Topfer, Reinhard; Eibach, Rudolf (2007).
"Vitis International Variety Catalogue"
. Institute for Grapevine Breeding Geilweilerhof (IRZ), Siebeldingen, Germany
. Retrieved
2007-10-19
.
- ^
J. Robinson, J. Harding and J. Vouillamoz
Wine Grapes - A complete guide to 1,368 vine varieties, including their origins and flavours
pp. 874-875, Allen Lane (2012)
ISBN
978-1-846-14446-2
.
- ^
J. Cox & G. Gigli "
Vine Identification ? A Botanist's View
Archived
2007-11-24 at the
Wayback Machine
",
The Wine News Magazine
, accessed January 11, 2008.
- ^
a
b
Robinson, 2006, pp. 148?149.
- ^
H. Johnson
Vintage: The Story of Wine
p. 130, Simon and Schuster (1989)
ISBN
0-671-68702-6
.
- ^
Appellation America
Chardonnay
Accessed: January 10, 2008.
- ^
Robinson, 2006, p. 128.
- ^
Richard P. Vine, Ellen M. Harkness, Sally J. Linton
" Winemaking: from grape growing to marketplace "(Second Edition)
p. 19, Springer 2002
ISBN
0-306-47272-4
.
- ^
WinesNY
New York Chardonnay
Accessed: May 31, 2009.
- ^
a
b
J. Peterson-Nedry
Washington Wine Country
pp. 60-63, Graphic Arts Center Publishing 2000
ISBN
1-55868-503-0
.
- ^
J. Schreiner
The British Columbia Wine Companion
p. 38, Orca Book Publishers 1996
ISBN
1-55143-061-4
.
- ^
Radden, Rosemary.
"Grapes and Wines of the World"
.
State Library of South Australia
. Archived from
the original
on 2007-08-07
. Retrieved
2007-06-16
.
- ^
Tyrell's Wines
Murray Tyrell-Biography
Archived
2007-12-23 at the
Wayback Machine
, accessed: January 12, 2007.
- ^
"Diacetyl"
.
E.coli Metabolome Database
. ECMDB
. Retrieved
20 October
2013
.
- ^
D. Sogg "
White Wines, New Barrels: The taste of new oak gains favor worldwide
Archived
2008-11-22 at the
Wayback Machine
" Wine Spectator. July 31, 2001.
- ^
Prial, Frank J.
(1995-08-30).
"Wine Talk"
.
The New York Times
.
- ^
Clarke, 2001, Websters, p. 191.
- ^
Robinson, 2006, p. 746, entry
Vine varieties
.
- ^
Uhlig, Robert (2001-05-31).
"GM grapes could cut the price of Chardonnay"
.
The Daily Telegraph
. London. Archived from
the original
on 2010-06-01
. Retrieved
2010-04-28
.
- ^
Independent Newspapers Online (2009-08-12).
"Government OKs genetically modified vines"
. IOL.co.za
. Retrieved
2011-05-22
.
Sources
[
edit
]
External links
[
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]
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