Court process to seek judicial review
In
law
,
certiorari
is a
court process
to seek
judicial review
of a decision of a lower court or
government agency
.
Certiorari
comes from the name of an English
prerogative writ
, issued by a
superior court
to direct that the record of the lower court be sent to the superior court for review. The term is Latin for "to be made more certain", and comes from the opening line of such writs, which traditionally began with the Latin words "
Certiorari volumus
..." ("We wish to be made more certain...").
Derived from the
English common law
,
certiorari
is prevalent in
countries using, or influenced by, the common law
.
It has evolved in the legal system of each nation, as court decisions and statutory amendments are made. In modern law,
certiorari
is recognized in many
jurisdictions
, including
England and Wales
(now called a "quashing order"),
Canada
,
India
,
Ireland
,
the Philippines
and the
United States
. With the expansion of
administrative law
in the 19th and 20th centuries, the writ of
certiorari
has gained broader use in many countries, to review the decisions of administrative bodies as well as lower courts.
Etymology
[
edit
]
The term
certiorari
(US English:
,
, or
;
[1]
[2]
[3]
UK English:
or
)
[4]
[5]
comes from the words used at the beginning of these writs when they were written in Latin:
certiorari [volumus]
"[we wish] to be made more certain".
Certiorari
is the
present
passive
infinitive
of the
Latin
verb
certioro, certiorare
("to inform, apprise, show").
[3]
[6]
It is often abbreviated
cert.
in the United States, particularly in relation to
applications to the Supreme Court of the United States
for review of a lower court decision.
[7]
Origins
[
edit
]
Ancient Rome
[
edit
]
Historical usage dates back to
Roman Law
. In Roman law,
certiorari
was suggested in terms of reviewing a case?much as the term is applied today?although the term was also used in writing to indicate the need or duty to inform other parties of a court's ruling. It was a highly technical term appearing only in
jurisprudential Latin
, most frequently in the works of
Ulpian
.
The term
certiorari
is often found in Roman literature on law, but applied in a philosophical rather than tangible manner when concerning the action of review of a case or aspects of a case. Essentially, it states that the case will be heard.
English prerogative writ
[
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]
In English
common law
,
certiorari
was a supervisory writ, serving to keep "all inferior jurisdictions within the bounds of their authority ... [protecting] the liberty of the subject, by speedy and summary interposition".
[8]
In England and Wales, the Court of
King's Bench
was tasked with the duty of supervising all lower courts, and had power to issue all writs necessary for the discharge of that duty; the justices of that Court appeared to have no discretion as to whether it was heard, as long as an application for a bill of
certiorari
met established criteria, as it arose from their duty of supervision.
As time went on,
certiorari
evolved into an important
rule of law
remedy:
Certiorari is used to bring up into the High Court the decision of some inferior tribunal or authority in order that it may be investigated. If the decision does not pass the test, it is quashed ? that is to say, it is declared completely invalid, so that no one need respect it.
The underlying policy is that all inferior courts and authorities have only limited jurisdiction or powers and must be kept within their legal bounds. This is the concern of the Crown, for the sake of orderly administration of justice, but it is a private complaint which sets the Crown in motion.
[9]
Australia
[
edit
]
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needs expansion
. You can help by
adding to it
.
(
October 2021
)
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In Australia, the power to issue
certiorari
is part of the
inherent jurisdiction
of the
superior courts
.
[10]
[11]
Canada
[
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]
In Canada,
certiorari
is a rarely-used power, part of the inherent jurisdiction of the superior courts. It is usually used to cancel a lower court's decision because of an obvious mistake.
In
R. v. Awashish,
2018 SCC 45, the
Supreme Court of Canada
restricted the use of
certiorari
in criminal matters. It ruled that
certiorari
can only be used to correct jurisdictional errors, i.e. when a court makes a decision that is out of its power to make; it cannot be used to correct legal errors, i.e. where a court makes a decision it is allowed to make, but decides incorrectly. The latter type of error can only be challenged through an appeal, once the court makes a final decision in the case. This is part of a general prohibition on
interlocutory appeals
in criminal matters.
Certiorari
is also available if a decision affects the rights of a third party who would not have standing to appeal the decision. The Supreme Court declined to decide whether
certiorari
would be available to address a legal error that threatens irreparable harm to a party's rights that could not be cured on appeal.
[12]
[13]
England and Wales
[
edit
]
In the courts of England and Wales, the remedy of
certiorari
evolved into a general remedy for the correction of
plain error
, to bring decisions of an inferior court, tribunal, or public authority before the superior court for review so that the court can determine whether to quash such decisions.
[14]
Reflecting this evolution in usage as a remedy after
judicial review
nullifying a decision of a public body, in England and Wales, orders or writs of
certiorari
were renamed "
quashing orders
" by the Civil Procedure (Modification of Supreme Court Act 1981) Order 2004,
[15]
which amended the
Senior Courts Act 1981
.
[16]
India
[
edit
]
The
Constitution of India
vests the power to issue
certiorari
in the
Supreme Court of India
, for the purpose of enforcing the fundamental rights guaranteed by
Part III of the Constitution
. The
Parliament of India
has the authority to give a similar
certiorari
power to any other court to enforce the fundamental rights, in addition to the
certiorari
power of the Supreme Court.
[17]
In addition to the power to issue
certiorari
to protect fundamental rights, the Supreme Court and the
High Courts
all have jurisdiction to issue
certiorari
for the protection of other legal rights.
[18]
[19]
New Zealand
[
edit
]
When the
Supreme Court of New Zealand
was established a superior court in 1841, it had inherent jurisdiction to issue
certiorari
to control inferior courts and tribunals.
[20]
The common law jurisdiction to issue
certiorari
was modified by statute in 1972, when the
New Zealand Parliament
passed the
Judicature Amendment Act
. This Act created a new procedural mechanism, known as an "application for review", which could be used in place of
certiorari
and the other prerogative writs. The
Judicature Amendment Act
did not abolish
certiorari
and the other writs, but it was expected that as the legal profession adapted to the use of the new application for review, the writs would cease to be used.
[21]
Philippines
[
edit
]
The Philippines has adapted the extraordinary writ of
certiorari
in civil actions under its
Rules of Court
, as the procedure to seek judicial review from the
Supreme Court of the Philippines
.
[22]
[23]
United States
[
edit
]
Federal courts
[
edit
]
As
Associate Justice
James Wilson
(1742?1798), the person primarily responsible for the drafting of
Article Three of the United States Constitution
, which describes the
judicial branch
of the
US federal government
,
[24]
explains:
In every judicial department, well arranged and well organized, there should be a regular, progressive, gradation of jurisdiction; and one supreme tribunal should superintend and govern all the others.
An arrangement in this manner is proper for two reasons:
- The supreme tribunal produces and preserves a uniformity of decision through the whole judicial system.
- It confines and supports every inferior court within the limits of its just jurisdiction.
If no superintending tribunal of this nature were established, different courts might adopt different and even contradictory rules of decision; and the distractions, springing from these different and contradictory rules, would be without remedy and without end. Opposite determinations of the same question, in different courts, would be equally final and irreversible.
[25]
In the United States,
certiorari
is most often seen as the
writ
that the
Supreme Court of the United States
issues to a lower court to review the lower court's judgment for
legal error
(
reversible error
) and review where no
appeal
is available as a matter of right. Before the
Judiciary Act of 1891
,
[26]
the cases that could reach the Supreme Court were heard as a matter of right, meaning that the Court was required to issue a decision in each of those cases.
[27]
That is, the Court had to review all properly presented appeals on the merits, hear oral argument, and issue decisions. As the United States expanded in the nineteenth century, the federal judicial system became increasingly strained, and the Supreme Court had a backlog of cases several years long.
[28]
The Act solved these problems by transferring most of the court's direct appeals to the newly created
circuit courts of appeals
, whose decisions in those cases would normally be final.
[29]
The Supreme Court did not completely give up its judiciary authority because it gained the ability to review the decisions of the courts of appeals at its discretion through writ of
certiorari
.
[30]
Since the
Judiciary Act of 1925
and the
Supreme Court Case Selections Act
of 1988,
[31]
most cases cannot be appealed to the Supreme Court of the United States as a matter of right. A party who wants the Supreme Court to review a decision of a federal or state court files a "petition for writ of certiorari" in the Supreme Court. A "petition" is printed in booklet format and 40 copies are filed with the Court.
[32]
If the Court
grants
the petition, the case is scheduled for the filing of briefs and for oral argument. A minimum of four of the nine justices is required to grant a writ of
certiorari
, referred to as the "
rule of four
". The court denies the vast majority of petitions and thus leaves the decision of the lower court to stand without review; it takes roughly 80 to 150 cases each term. In the term that concluded in June 2009, for example, 8,241 petitions were filed, with a grant rate of approximately 1.1 percent.
[33]
Cases on the paid certiorari docket are substantially more likely to be granted than those on the
in forma pauperis
docket.
[34]
The Supreme Court is generally careful to choose only cases over which the Court has
jurisdiction
and which the Court considers sufficiently important, such as cases involving deep constitutional questions, to merit the use of its limited resources, utilizing tools such as the
cert pool
. While both appeals of right and cert petitions often present several alleged errors of the lower courts for appellate review, the court normally grants review of only one or two questions presented in a
certiorari
petition.
The Supreme Court sometimes grants a writ of
certiorari
to resolve a "
circuit split
", when the
federal appeals courts
in two (or more)
federal judicial circuits
have ruled differently in similar situations. These are often called "percolating issues".
Certiorari
is sometimes informally referred to as
cert.
, and cases warranting the Supreme Court's attention as "
cert.
worthy".
[35]
The granting of a writ does not necessarily mean that the Supreme Court disagrees with the decision of the lower court. Granting a writ of
certiorari
means merely that at least four of the justices have determined that the circumstances described in the petition are sufficient to warrant review by the Court.
Conversely, the Supreme Court's denial of a petition for a writ of
certiorari
is sometimes misunderstood as implying that the Supreme Court approves the decision of the lower court. As the Court explained in
Missouri v. Jenkins
,
[36]
such a denial "imports no expression of opinion upon the merits of the case". In particular, a denial of a writ of
certiorari
means that no
binding precedent
is created by the denial itself, and the lower court's decision is treated as mandatory authority only within the geographical (or in the case of the Federal Circuit, subject-specific) jurisdiction of that court. The reasons for why a denial of
certiorari
cannot be treated as implicit approval were set forth in
Maryland v. Baltimore Radio Show, Inc.
(1950), in which the Court explained the many rationales which could underlie the denial of a writ which have nothing to do with the merits of the case.
State courts
[
edit
]
Some
United States state
court systems use the same terminology, but in others,
writ of review
,
leave to appeal
, or
certification for appeal
is used in place of
writ of certiorari
as the name for
discretionary review
of a lower court's judgment. The
Supreme Court of Pennsylvania
uniquely uses the terms
allocatur
(informally) and "allowance of appeal" (formally) for the same process. A handful of states lack intermediate appellate courts; in most of these, their supreme courts operate under a mandatory review regime, in which the supreme court must take all appeals in order to preserve the loser's traditional right to one appeal (except in criminal cases where the defendant was acquitted). Virginia has an intermediate appeals court, but operates under discretionary review except in family law and administrative cases. Mandatory review remains in place in all states where the
death penalty
exists; in those states, a sentence of death is automatically appealed to the state's highest court.
In two states without an intermediate appeals court (New Hampshire and West Virginia), the Supreme Court used to operate under discretionary review in all cases, whether civil or criminal. This meant that there was no right of appeal in either state, with the only exception being death penalty cases in New Hampshire; West Virginia abolished its death penalty in 1965. New Hampshire transitioned to mandatory review for the vast majority of cases beginning in 2004,
[37]
while West Virginia transitioned to mandatory review for all cases beginning in 2010.
[38]
[39]
Texas is an unusual exception to the rule that denial of
certiorari
by the state supreme court normally does not imply approval or disapproval of the merits of the lower court's decision. In March 1927, the Texas Legislature enacted a law directing the
Texas Supreme Court
to summarily
refuse
to hear applications for writs of error when it believed the Court of Appeals opinion correctly stated the law.
[40]
Thus, since June 1927, over 4,100 decisions of the
Texas Courts of Appeals
have become valid binding precedent of the Texas Supreme Court itself because the high court refused applications for writ of error rather than denying them and thereby signaled that it approved of their holdings as the law of the state.
[40]
While Texas' unique practice saved the state supreme court from having to hear relatively minor cases just to create uniform statewide precedents on those issues, it also makes for lengthy citations to the opinions of the Courts of Appeals, since the subsequent writ history of the case must always be noted (e.g., no writ, writ refused, writ denied, etc.) in order for the reader to determine at a glance whether the cited opinion is binding precedent only in the district of the Court of Appeals in which it was decided, or binding precedent for the entire state.
[40]
In contrast, California,
[41]
Florida,
[42]
and New York
[43]
solved the problem of creating uniform precedent by simply holding that the first intermediate appellate court to reach a novel question of law always sets binding precedent for the entire state, unless and until another intermediate appellate court expressly disagrees with the first one. Meanwhile, some states, such as
Pennsylvania
and
New Jersey
, avoid the issue entirely by eschewing regionalized appellate courts; the intermediate appellate courts in these states may hear cases from all parts of the state within their subject-matter jurisdiction.
Administrative law
[
edit
]
In the
administrative law
context, the
common-law
writ of
certiorari
was historically used by lower courts in the United States for
judicial review
of decisions made by an
administrative agency
after an adversarial hearing. Some states have retained this use of the writ of
certiorari
in state courts, while others have replaced it with statutory procedures. In the federal courts, this use of
certiorari
has been abolished and replaced by a
civil action
under the
Administrative Procedure Act
in a
United States district court
or in some circumstances a petition for review in a United States court of appeals.
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
"certiorari" in the Merriam-Webster Dictionary
- ^
"Define "certiorari" at Dictionary.com"
.
- ^
a
b
"Oxford Dictionary (US English), "certiorari"
"
. Archived from
the original
on February 4, 2014.
- ^
"certiorari" in the Collins English Dictionary
- ^
"Oxford Dictionary (UK English), "certiorari"
"
. Archived from
the original
on September 30, 2012.
- ^
"Lewis and Short Latin Dictionary, "certiorari"
"
.
- ^
Legal Information Institute, Wex Legal Dictionary: "Certiorari".
- ^
3 Wm. Blackstone,
Commentaries on the Laws of England
42 (1765).
- ^
H.W.R. Wade & C.F. Forsyth,
Administrative Law
, Eighth Edition, p. 591.
- ^
Kirk v Industrial Relations Commission
[2010] HCA 1
- ^
Klewer v Dutch
[2000] FCA 509
- ^
Supreme Court of Canada (26 October 2018).
"
R. v. Awashish
, 2018 SCC 45"
.
CanLII
. Retrieved
5 May
2022
.
- ^
"Case in Brief:
R. v. Awashish
"
.
Supreme Court of Canada
. 26 October 2018
. Retrieved
5 May
2022
.
- ^
Anisminic Ltd v Foreign Compensation Commission
, [1968] UKHL 6, [1969] 2 AC 147; [1969] 2 WLR 163
(Court may correct any lower court decision "depart[ing] from the rules of natural justice," per
Lord Pearce
).
- ^
"Civil Procedure (Modification of Supreme Court Act 1981) Order 2004: Section 3"
,
legislation.gov.uk
,
The National Archives
, SI 2004/1033 (s. 3)
- ^
"Senior Courts Act 1981: Section 29"
,
legislation.gov.uk
,
The National Archives
, 1981 c. 54 (s. 29)
- ^
Constitution of India
, Part III (Fundamental Rights), article 32.
- ^
Constitution of India
, Part V (The Union), Chapter IV (The Union Judiciary), art. 139.
- ^
Constitution of India
, Part VI (The States), Chapter V (The High Courts in the States), art. 226.
- ^
Encyclopedia of New Zealand 1966: Legal System: Supreme Court.
- ^
Law Commission/Te Aka Matua O Te Tura, "Study Paper 10: Mandatory Orders against the Crown and Tidying Judicial Review" (March 2001), paras. 49-50.
- ^
"Rules of Court"
.
lawphil.net
. Retrieved
2016-06-29
.
- ^
"Philippine Supreme Court Circulars"
. Chan Robles Virtual Law Library
. Retrieved
July 17,
2012
.
- ^
The Oyez Project,
Justice James Wilson
(last visited April 4, 2011).
- ^
2
The Works of James Wilson
149?50 (J. D. Andrews ed., 1896).
- ^
Ch. 517, 26 Stat. 826 (1891).
- ^
Russel R. Wheeler & Cynthia Harrison, Fed. Judicial Ctr., Creating the Federal Judicial System 17?18 (3d ed. 2005).
- ^
Wheeler & Harrison,
supra
, at 12, 16.
- ^
Judiciary Act of 1891 § 6., 26 Stat. at 828.
- ^
§ 6, 26 Stat. at 828.
- ^
Supreme Court Case Selections Act, Pub.L. 100-352, 102 Stat. 662 (1988)
- ^
United States Supreme Court Rule
Archived
2017-07-06 at the
Wayback Machine
33
- ^
Caperton v. A.T. Massey Coal Co.
, 556 U.S. 868, __ (2009) (
Roberts
, C.J., dissenting) (slip op. at 11). See also
https://www.supremecourt.gov/about/justicecaseload.pdf
(10,000 cases in the mid-2000s); Melanie Wachtell & David Thompson,
An Empirical Analysis of Supreme Court Certiorari Petition Procedures
16 Geo. Mason U. L. Rev. 237
, 241 (2009) (7500 cases per term);
Chief Justice
William H. Rehnquist
,
Remarks at University of Guanajuato
, Mexico, 9/27/01 (same).
- ^
Thompson, David C.; Wachtell, Melanie F. (2009). "An Empirical Analysis of Supreme Court Certiorari Petition Procedures".
George Mason University Law Review
.
16
(2): 237, 249.
SSRN
1377522
.
- ^
Tipton v. Socony Mobil Oil Co., Inc.
, 375 U. S. 34 (1963)
- ^
515 U.S. 70
(1995)
- ^
"Supreme Court - Judicial Duties"
.
New Hampshire Judicial Branch
. Retrieved
16 November
2014
.
- ^
Stoneking, Jay (1 October 2014).
"State of West Virginia v. McKinley"
.
West Virginia Supreme Court of Appeals Blog
. Retrieved
16 November
2014
.
- ^
"Rules of Appellate Procedure - Part III"
.
West Virginia Judiciary
. Retrieved
16 November
2014
.
- ^
a
b
c
Steiner, Mark E. (February 1999). "Not Fade Away: The Continuing Relevance of 'Writ Refused' Opinions".
The Appellate Advocate
.
12
: 3?6.
- ^
Sarti v. Salt Creek Ltd.
, 167 Cal. App. 4th 1187, 85 Cal. Rptr. 3d 506 (2008).
- ^
Pardo v. State
, 596 So. 2d 665, 666 (Fla. 1992).
- ^
Mountain View Coach Lines, Inc. v. Storms
, 102 A.D.2d 663, 476 N.Y.S.2d 918 (2d Dept. 1984).
Further reading
[
edit
]
Look up
certiorari
in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.