Periodic table group
The
carbon group
is a
periodic table group
consisting of
carbon
(C),
silicon
(Si),
germanium
(Ge),
tin
(Sn),
lead
(Pb), and
flerovium
(Fl). It lies within the
p-block
.
In modern
IUPAC
notation, it is called
group 14
. In the field of
semiconductor physics
, it is still universally called
group IV
. The group is also known as the
tetrels
(from the Greek word
tetra
, which means four), stemming from the Roman numeral IV in the group names, or (not coincidentally) from the fact that these elements have four
valence electrons
(see below). They are also known as the
crystallogens
[1]
or
adamantogens
.
[2]
Characteristics
[
edit
]
Chemical
[
edit
]
Like other groups, the members of this family show patterns in
electron configuration
, especially in the outermost shells, resulting in trends in chemical behavior:
Z
|
Element
|
No. of electrons/shell
|
6
|
Carbon
|
2, 4
|
14
|
Silicon
|
2, 8, 4
|
32
|
Germanium
|
2, 8, 18, 4
|
50
|
Tin
|
2, 8, 18, 18, 4
|
82
|
Lead
|
2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 4
|
114
|
Flerovium
|
2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 4 (predicted)
|
Each of the
elements
in this group has 4
electrons
in its outer
shell
. An isolated, neutral group 14 atom has the s
2
p
2
configuration in the ground state. These elements, especially
carbon
and
silicon
, have a strong propensity for
covalent bonding
, which usually brings the outer shell
to eight electrons
. Bonds in these elements often lead to
hybridisation
where distinct
s and p characters
of the orbitals are erased. For
single bonds
, a typical arrangement has
four pairs of sp
3
electrons
, although other cases exist too, such as three sp
2
pairs in
graphene
and graphite. Double bonds are characteristic for carbon (
alkenes
,
CO
2
...); the same for
π-systems
in general. The tendency to lose electrons increases as the size of the
atom
increases, as it does with increasing atomic number.
Carbon alone forms negative
ions
, in the form of
carbide
(C
4?
) ions.
Silicon and
germanium
, both
metalloids
, each can form +4 ions.
Tin
and
lead
both are
metals
, while flerovium is a synthetic,
radioactive
(its half life is very short, only 1.9 seconds) element that may have a few
noble gas
-like properties, though it is still most likely a post-transition metal. Tin and lead are both capable of forming +2 ions. Although tin is chemically a metal,
its α allotrope
looks more like germanium than like a metal and it is a poor electric conductor.
Among main group (groups 1,2, 13?17) alkyl derivatives QR
n
, where
n
is the standard bonding number for Q (
see
lambda convention
), the group 14 derivatives QR
4
are notable in being electron-precise: they are neither electron-deficient (having fewer electrons than an octet and tending to be Lewis acidic at Q and usually existing as oligomeric clusters or adducts with Lewis bases) nor electron-excessive (having lone pair(s) at Q and tending to be Lewis basic at Q). As a result, the group 14 alkyls have low chemical reactivity relative to the alkyl derivatives of other groups. In the case of carbon, the high bond dissociation energy of the C?C bond and lack of electronegativity difference between the central atom and the alkyl ligands render the saturated alkyl derivatives, the
alkanes
, particularly inert.
[3]
Carbon forms tetrahalides with all the
halogens
. Carbon also forms
many oxides
such as
carbon monoxide
,
carbon suboxide
, and
carbon dioxide
. Carbon forms disulfides and diselenides.
[4]
Silicon forms several hydrides; two of them are
SiH
4
and
Si
2
H
6
. Silicon forms tetrahalides with fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine. Silicon also forms
a dioxide
and
a disulfide
.
[5]
Silicon nitride
has the formula Si
3
N
4
.
[6]
Germanium forms five hydrides. The first two germanium hydrides are
GeH
4
and
Ge
2
H
6
. Germanium forms tetrahalides with all halogens except astatine and forms dihalides with all halogens except bromine and astatine. Germanium bonds to all natural single chalcogens except polonium, and forms dioxides, disulfides, and diselenides.
Germanium nitride
has the formula Ge
3
N
4
.
[7]
Tin forms two hydrides:
SnH
4
and
Sn
2
H
6
. Tin forms dihalides and tetrahalides with all halogens except astatine. Tin forms chalcogenides with one of each naturally occurring chalcogen except polonium, and forms chalcogenides with two of each naturally occurring chalcogen except polonium and tellurium.
[8]
Lead forms one hydride, which has the formula
PbH
4
. Lead forms dihalides and tetrahalides with fluorine and chlorine, and forms a dibromide and diiodide, although the tetrabromide and tetraiodide of lead are unstable. Lead forms four oxides, a sulfide, a selenide, and a telluride.
[9]
There are no known compounds of flerovium.
[10]
Physical
[
edit
]
The
boiling points
of the carbon group tend to get lower with the heavier elements. Carbon, the lightest carbon group element,
sublimes
at 3825 °C. Silicon's boiling point is 3265 °C, germanium's is 2833 °C, tin's is 2602 °C, and lead's is 1749 °C. Flerovium is predicted boil in -60 °C.
[11]
[12]
The
melting points
of the carbon group elements have roughly the same trend as their boiling points. Silicon melts at 1414 °C, germanium melts at 939 °C, tin melts at 232 °C, and lead melts at 328 °C.
[13]
Carbon's crystal structure is
hexagonal
; at high pressures and temperatures it forms
diamond
(see below). Silicon and germanium have
diamond cubic
crystal structures, as does tin at low temperatures (below 13.2 °C). Tin at room temperature has a
tetragonal
crystal structure. Lead has a
face-centered cubic
crystal structure.
[13]
The
densities
of the carbon group elements tend to increase with increasing atomic number. Carbon has a density of 2.26
grams per cubic centimeter
, silicon has a density of 2.33 grams per cubic centimeter, germanium has a density of 5.32 grams per cubic centimeter. Tin has a density of 7.26 grams per cubic centimeter, and lead has a density of 11.3 grams per cubic centimeter.
[13]
The
atomic radii
of the carbon group elements tend to increase with increasing atomic number. Carbon's atomic radius is 77
picometers
, silicon's is 118 picometers, germanium's is 123 picometers, tin's is 141 picometers, and lead's is 175 picometers.
[13]
Allotropes
[
edit
]
Carbon has multiple
allotropes
. The most common is
graphite
, which is carbon in the form of stacked sheets. Another form of carbon is
diamond
, but this is relatively rare.
Amorphous carbon
is a third allotrope of carbon; it is a component of
soot
. Another allotrope of carbon is a
fullerene
, which has the form of sheets of carbon atoms folded into a sphere. A fifth allotrope of carbon, discovered in 2003, is called
graphene
, and is in the form of a layer of carbon atoms arranged in a honeycomb-shaped formation.
[6]
[14]
[15]
Silicon has two known allotropes that exist at room temperature. These allotropes are known as the amorphous and the crystalline allotropes. The amorphous allotrope is a brown powder. The crystalline allotrope is gray and has a metallic
luster
.
[16]
Tin has two allotropes: α-tin, also known as gray tin, and β-tin. Tin is typically found in the β-tin form, a silvery metal. However, at standard pressure, β-tin converts to α-tin, a gray powder, at temperatures below 13.2 °C (55.8 °F). This can cause tin objects in cold temperatures to crumble to gray powder in a process known as
tin pest
or tin rot.
[6]
[17]
Nuclear
[
edit
]
At least two of the carbon group elements (tin and lead) have
magic nuclei
, meaning that these elements are more common and more stable than elements that do not have a magic nucleus.
[17]
Isotopes
[
edit
]
There are 15 known
isotopes of carbon
. Of these, three are naturally occurring. The most common is
stable
carbon-12
, followed by stable
carbon-13
.
[13]
Carbon-14
is a natural radioactive isotope with a half-life of 5,730 years.
[18]
23
isotopes of silicon
have been discovered. Five of these are naturally occurring. The most common is stable silicon-28, followed by stable silicon-29 and stable silicon-30. Silicon-32 is a radioactive isotope that occurs naturally as a result of radioactive decay of
actinides
, and via
spallation
in the upper atmosphere. Silicon-34 also occurs naturally as the result of radioactive decay of actinides.
[18]
32
isotopes of germanium
have been discovered. Five of these are naturally occurring. The most common is the stable isotope germanium-74, followed by the stable isotope germanium-72, the stable isotope germanium-70, and the stable isotope germanium-73. The isotope germanium-76 is a
primordial radioisotope
.
[18]
40
isotopes of tin
have been discovered. 14 of these occur in nature. The most common is tin-120, followed by tin-118, tin-116, tin-119, tin-117, tin-124, tin-122, tin-112, and tin-114: all of these are stable. Tin also has four radioisotopes that occur as the result of the radioactive decay of uranium. These isotopes are tin-121, tin-123, tin-125, and tin-126.
[18]
38
isotopes of lead
have been discovered. 9 of these are naturally occurring. The most common isotope is lead-208, followed by lead-206, lead-207, and lead-204: all of these are stable. 5 isotopes of lead occur from the radioactive decay of uranium and thorium. These isotopes are lead-209, lead-210, lead-211, lead-212 and lead-214.
[18]
6
isotopes of flerovium
(flerovium-284, flerovium-285, flerovium-286, flerovium-287, flerovium-288, and flerovium-289) have been discovered. None of these are naturally occurring. Flerovium's most stable isotope is flerovium-289, which has a half-life of 2.6 seconds.
[18]
Occurrence
[
edit
]
Carbon accumulates as the result of
stellar fusion
in most stars, even small ones.
[17]
Carbon is present in the Earth's crust in concentrations of 480 parts per million, and is present in
seawater
at concentrations of 28 parts per million. Carbon is present in the atmosphere in the form of
carbon monoxide
,
carbon dioxide
, and
methane
. Carbon is a key constituent of
carbonate minerals
, and is in
hydrogen carbonate
, which is common in seawater. Carbon forms 22.8% of a typical human.
[18]
Silicon is present in the Earth's crust at concentrations of 28%, making it the second most abundant element there. Silicon's concentration in seawater can vary from 30 parts per billion on the surface of the ocean to 2000 parts per billion deeper down. Silicon dust occurs in trace amounts in Earth's atmosphere.
Silicate minerals
are the most common type of mineral on earth. Silicon makes up 14.3 parts per million of the human body on average.
[18]
Only the largest stars produce silicon via stellar fusion.
[17]
Germanium makes up 2 parts per million of the Earth's crust, making it the 52nd most abundant element there. On average, germanium makes up 1 part per million of
soil
. Germanium makes up 0.5 parts per trillion of seawater.
Organogermanium compounds
are also found in seawater. Germanium occurs in the human body at concentrations of 71.4 parts per billion. Germanium has been found to exist in some very faraway stars.
[18]
Tin makes up 2 parts per million of the Earth's crust, making it the 49th most abundant element there. On average, tin makes up 1 part per million of soil. Tin exists in seawater at concentrations of 4 parts per trillion. Tin makes up 428 parts per billion of the human body.
Tin(IV) oxide
occurs at concentrations of 0.1 to 300 parts per million in soils.
[18]
Tin also occurs in concentrations of one part per thousand in
igneous rocks
.
[19]
Lead makes up 14 parts per million of the Earth's crust, making it the 36th most abundant element there. On average, lead makes up 23 parts per million of soil, but the concentration can reach 20000 parts per million (2 percent) near old lead mines. Lead exists in seawater at concentrations of 2 parts per trillion. Lead makes up 1.7 parts per million of the human body by weight. Human activity releases more lead into the environment than any other metal.
[18]
Flerovium doesn't occur in nature at all, so it only exists in
particle accelerators
with a few atoms at a time.
[18]
History
[
edit
]
Discoveries and uses in antiquity
[
edit
]
Carbon
,
tin
, and
lead
are a few of the elements well known in the ancient world, together with
sulfur
,
iron
,
copper
,
mercury
,
silver
, and
gold
.
[20]
Silicon as silica in the form of rock crystal was familiar to the predynastic Egyptians, who used it for beads and small vases; to the early Chinese; and probably to many others of the ancients. The manufacture of glass containing silica was carried out both by the Egyptians ? at least as early as 1500 BCE ? and by the
Phoenicians
. Many of the naturally occurring compounds or
silicate minerals
were used in various kinds of mortar for construction of dwellings by the earliest people.
The origins of tin seem to be lost in history. It appears that bronzes, which are alloys of copper and tin, were used by prehistoric man some time before the pure metal was isolated. Bronzes were common in early Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley, Egypt, Crete, Israel, and Peru. Much of the tin used by the early Mediterranean peoples apparently came from the
Scilly Isles
and Cornwall in the British Isles,
[21]
where mining of the metal dates from about 300?200 BCE. Tin mines were operating in both the Inca and Aztec areas of South and Central America before the Spanish conquest.
Lead is mentioned often in early Biblical accounts. The
Babylonians
used the metal as plates on which to record inscriptions. The
Romans
used it for tablets, water pipes, coins, and even cooking utensils; indeed, as a result of the last use, lead poisoning was recognized in the time of
Augustus Caesar
. The compound known as white lead was apparently prepared as a decorative pigment at least as early as 200 BCE.
Modern discoveries
[
edit
]
Amorphous elemental silicon
was first obtained pure in 1824 by the Swedish chemist
Jons Jacob Berzelius
; impure silicon had already been obtained in 1811.
Crystalline elemental silicon
was not prepared until 1854, when it was obtained as a product of electrolysis.
Germanium is one of three elements the existence of which was predicted in 1869 by the Russian chemist
Dmitri Mendeleev
when he first devised his periodic table. However, the element was not actually discovered for some time. In September 1885, a miner discovered a mineral sample in a silver mine and gave it to the mine manager, who determined that it was a new mineral and sent the mineral to
Clemens A. Winkler
. Winkler realized that the sample was 75% silver, 18% sulfur, and 7% of an undiscovered element. After several months, Winkler isolated the element and determined that it was element 32.
[18]
The first attempt to discover flerovium (then referred to as "element 114") was in 1969, at the
Joint Institute for Nuclear Research
, but it was unsuccessful. In 1977, researchers at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research bombarded
plutonium-244
atoms with
calcium-48
, but were again unsuccessful. This nuclear reaction was repeated in 1998, this time successfully.
[18]
Etymologies
[
edit
]
- Carbon
comes from the Latin word
carbo
, meaning "charcoal".
- Silicon
comes from the Latin word
silex
(or
silicis
), meaning "flint".
- Germanium
comes from the Latin word
Germania
, the Latin name for Germany, which is the country where germanium was discovered.
- Stannum
comes from the Latin word
stannum
, meaning "tin", from or related to Celtic
staen
.
- - The common name for stannum in English is
tin
, inherited directly from
Old English
. Possibly of common origin with
stannum
and
staen
.
- Plumbum
comes from the Latin word
plumbum
meaning lead.
- - The common name for plumbum in English is
lead
, inherited directly from Old English.
[18]
Applications
[
edit
]
Carbon is most commonly used in its
amorphous
form. In this form, carbon is used for
steelmaking
, as
carbon black
, as a filling in
tires
, in
respirators
, and as
activated charcoal
. Carbon is also used in the form of
graphite
is commonly used as the lead in
pencils
.
Diamond
, another form of carbon, is commonly used in jewelry.
[18]
Carbon fibers
are used in numerous applications, such as
satellite
struts, because the fibers are highly strong yet elastic.
[22]
Silicon dioxide
has a wide variety of applications, including
toothpaste
, construction fillers, and silica is a major component of
glass
. 50% of pure silicon is devoted to the manufacture of metal
alloys
. 45% of silicon is devoted to the manufacture of
silicones
. Silicon is also commonly used in
semiconductors
since the 1950s.
[17]
[22]
Germanium was used in semiconductors until the 1950s, when it was replaced by silicon.
[17]
Radiation detectors contain germanium.
Germanium dioxide
is used in
fiber optics
and wide-angle camera lenses. A small amount of germanium mixed with
silver
can make silver
tarnish
-proof. The resulting alloy is known as argentium.
[18]
Solder
is the most important use of tin; 50% of all tin produced goes into this application. 20% of all tin produced is used in
tin plate
. 20% of tin is also used by the
chemical industry
. Tin is also a constituent of numerous alloys, including
pewter
.
Tin (IV) oxide
has been commonly used in
ceramics
for thousands of years.
Cobalt stannate
is a tin compound which is used as a
cerulean blue
pigment
.
[18]
80% of all lead produced goes into
lead?acid batteries
. Other applications for lead include weights, pigments, and shielding against radioactive materials. Lead was historically used in gasoline in the form of
tetraethyllead
, but this application has been discontinued due to concerns of toxicity.
[23]
Production
[
edit
]
Carbon's allotrope diamond is produced mostly by
Russia
,
Botswana
,
Congo
,
Canada
, and
South Africa
,
India
. 80% of all
synthetic diamonds
are produced by Russia. China produces 70% of the world's graphite. Other graphite-mining countries are
Brazil
, Canada, and
Mexico
.
[18]
Silicon can be produced by heating silica with carbon.
[22]
There are some germanium ores, such as
germanite
, but these are not mined on account of being rare. Instead, germanium is extracted from the ores of metals such as
zinc
. In Russia and
China
, germanium is also separated from coal deposits. Germanium-containing ores are first treated with
chlorine
to form
germanium tetrachloride
, which is mixed with hydrogen gas. Then the germanium is further refined by
zone refining
. Roughly 140 metric tons of germanium are produced each year.
[18]
Mines output 300,000 metric tons of tin each year. China,
Indonesia
,
Peru
,
Bolivia
, and Brazil are the main producers of tin. The method by which tin is produced is to heat the tin mineral
cassiterite
(SnO
2
) with
coke
.
[18]
The most commonly mined lead ore is
galena
(lead sulfide). 4 million metric tons of lead are newly mined each year, mostly in China,
Australia
, the
United States
, and Peru. The ores are mixed with coke and
limestone
and
roasted
to produce pure lead. Most lead is recycled from
lead batteries
. The total amount of lead ever mined by humans amounts to 350 million metric tons.
[18]
Biological role
[
edit
]
Carbon is a key element to all known life. It is in all organic compounds, for example,
DNA
,
steroids
, and
proteins
.
[6]
Carbon's importance to life is primarily due to its ability to form numerous bonds with other elements.
[17]
There are 16 kilograms of carbon in a typical 70-kilogram human.
[18]
Silicon-based life
's feasibility is commonly discussed. However, it is less able than carbon to form elaborate rings and chains.
[6]
Silicon in the form of
silicon dioxide
is used by
diatoms
and
sea sponges
to form their
cell walls
and
skeletons
. Silicon is essential for
bone
growth in chickens and rats and may also be essential in humans. Humans consume on average between 20 and 1200
milligrams
of silicon per day, mostly from
cereals
. There is 1 gram of silicon in a typical 70-kilogram human.
[18]
A biological role for germanium is not known, although it does stimulate
metabolism
. In 1980, germanium was reported by
Kazuhiko Asai
to benefit health, but the claim has not been proven. Some plants take up germanium from the soil in the form of
germanium oxide
[
clarification needed
]
. These plants, which include
grains
and
vegetables
contain roughly 0.05 parts per million of germanium. The estimated human intake of germanium is 1 milligram per day. There are 5 milligrams of germanium in a typical 70-kilogram human.
[18]
Tin has been shown to be essential for proper growth in rats, but there is, as of 2013, no evidence to indicate that humans need tin in their diet. Plants do not require tin. However, plants do collect tin in their
roots
.
Wheat
and
maize
contain seven and three parts per million respectively. However, the level of tin in plants can reach 2000 parts per million if the plants are near a tin
smelter
. On average, humans consume 0.3 milligrams of tin per day. There are 30 milligrams of tin in a typical 70-kilogram human.
[18]
Lead has no known biological role, and is in fact highly
toxic
, but some
microbes
are able to survive in lead-contaminated environments. Some plants, such as
cucumbers
contain up to tens of parts per million of lead. There are 120 milligrams of lead in a typical 70-kilogram human.
[18]
Flerovium has no biological role and instead is found and made only in particle accelerators.
Toxicity
[
edit
]
Elemental carbon is not generally toxic, but many of its compounds are, such as
carbon monoxide
and
hydrogen cyanide
. However, carbon dust can be dangerous because it lodges in the lungs in a manner similar to
asbestos
.
[18]
Silicon minerals are not typically poisonous. However, silicon dioxide dust, such as that emitted by
volcanoes
can cause adverse health effects if it enters the lungs.
[17]
Germanium can interfere with such
enzymes
as
lactate
and
alcohol dehydrogenase
. Organic germanium compounds are more toxic than inorganic germanium compounds. Germanium has a low degree of
oral
toxicity in animals. Severe germanium poisoning can cause death by
respiratory paralysis
.
[24]
Some tin compounds are toxic to
ingest
, but most inorganic compounds of tin are considered nontoxic. Organic tin compounds, such as
trimethyl tin
and
triethyl tin
are highly toxic, and can disrupt metabolic processes inside cells.
[18]
Lead and its compounds, such as
lead acetates
are highly toxic.
Lead poisoning
can cause
headaches
, stomach pain,
constipation
, and
gout
.
[18]
Flerovium is too radioactive to test if its toxic or not although its high radioactivity alone would be toxic.
References
[
edit
]
- ^
Liu, Ning; Lu, Na; Su, Yan; Wang, Pu; Quan, Xie (2019).
"Fabrication of g-C
3
N
4
/Ti
3
C
2
composite and its visible-light photocatalytic capability for ciprofloxacin degradation"
.
Separation and Purification Technology
.
211
: 782?789.
doi
:
10.1016/j.seppur.2018.10.027
. Retrieved
17 August
2019
.
- ^
W. B. Jensen,
The Periodic Law and Table
Archived
2020-11-10 at the
Wayback Machine
.
- ^
Crabtree, Robert H. (2005).
The organometallic chemistry of the transition metals
(4 ed.). Hoboken, N.J: Wiley. p. 418.
ISBN
978-0-471-66256-3
.
- ^
Carbon compounds
, retrieved
January 24,
2013
- ^
Silicon compounds
, retrieved
January 24,
2013
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
Gray, Theodore (2011),
The Elements
- ^
Germanium compounds
, retrieved
January 24,
2013
- ^
Tin compounds
, retrieved
January 24,
2013
- ^
Lead compounds
, retrieved
January 24,
2013
- ^
Flerovium compounds
, retrieved
January 24,
2013
- ^
Archived at
Ghostarchive
and the
Wayback Machine
:
Oganessian, Yu. Ts.
(27 January 2017).
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.
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2017
.
- ^
Seaborg, G. T.
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.
Encyclopædia Britannica
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c
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e
Jackson, Mark (2001),
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- ^
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, retrieved
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- ^
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2013
- ^
Gagnon, Steve,
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a
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d
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f
g
h
Kean, Sam (2011),
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a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
k
l
m
n
o
p
q
r
s
t
u
v
w
x
y
z
aa
ab
ac
ad
Emsley, John (2011),
Nature's Building Blocks
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,
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February 24,
2013
- ^
Chemical Elements
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2013
- ^
Online Encyclopædia Britannica, Tin
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a
b
c
Galan, Mark (1992),
Structure of Matter
,
ISBN
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The Poisoner's Handbook
- ^
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January 19,
2013
|
---|
|
Carbon
C
Atomic Number: 6
Atomic Weight: 12.0107
Melting Point: 3948.15 K
Boiling Point: 4300 K
Specific mass: 2.267 g/cm
3
Electronegativity: 2.55
|
Silicon
Si
Atomic Number: 14
Atomic Weight: 28.0855
Melting Point: 1638.15 K
Boiling Point: 3538 K
Specific mass: 2.3296 g/cm
3
Electronegativity: 1.9
|
Germanium
Ge
Atomic Number: 32
Atomic Weight: 72.64
Melting Point: 1211.45 K
Boiling Point: 3106 K
Specific mass: 5.323 g/cm
3
Electronegativity: 2.01
|
Tin
Sn
Atomic Number: 50
Atomic Weight: 118.710
Melting Point: 505.21 K
Boiling Point: 2875 K
Specific mass: 7.287 g/cm
3
Electronegativity: 1.96
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Lead
Pb
Atomic Number: 82
Atomic Weight: 207.2
Melting Point: 600.75 K
Boiling Point: 2022 K
Specific mass: 11.342 g/cm
3
Electronegativity: 2.33
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Flerovium
Fl
Atomic Number: 114
Atomic Weight: [289]
Melting Point: ? 340 K
Boiling Point: ? 420 K
Specific mass: ? 22 g/cm
3
Electronegativity: ?
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