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Cantonese is an analytic language in which the arrangement of words in a sentence is important to its meaning. A basic sentence is in the form of SVO , i.e. a subject is followed by a verb then by an object , though this order is often violated because Cantonese is a topic-prominent language . Unlike synthetic languages , seldom do words indicate time , gender and number by inflection. Instead, these concepts are expressed through adverbs, aspect markers, and particles, or are deduced from the context. Different particles are added to a sentence to further specify its status or intonation .

A verb itself indicates no tense . The time can be explicitly shown with time-indicating adverbs. Certain exceptions exist, however, according to the pragmatic interpretation of a verb's meaning. Additionally, an optional aspect particle can be appended to a verb to indicate the state of an event. Appending interrogative or exclamative particles to a sentence turns a sentence into a question or shows the attitudes of the speaker.

Verbal aspect [ edit ]

In contrast to many European languages, Cantonese verbs are marked for aspect rather than tense?that is, whether an event has begun, is ongoing, or has been completed. Tense?where an event occurs within time, i.e. past, present, future?is specified through the use of time adverbs. In addition, verbal complements may convey aspectual distinctions, indicating whether an event is just beginning, is continuing, or at completion, and also the effect of the verb on its object(s).

Aspect particles are usually treated as suffixes bound to the verb. Aspect particles can also be added to an adjective and function as a verb "be (adjective)".

Aspect	Marker	Usage	Example
Perfective	? zo2 ? zo2	To emphasise a completed activity the result of which still applies to the present situation	我 ngo 5 I ? hai 2 at/in 香港 hoeng 1 gong 2 Hong Kong 住? zyu 6 zo 2 live- PFV 一 jat 1 one 年 nin 4 year 我 ? 香港 住? 一 年 ngo5 hai2 {hoeng1 gong2} {zyu6 zo2} jat1 nin4 I at/in {Hong Kong} live-PFV one year I have been living in Hong Kong for a year (and still live here)
Experiential	過 gwo3 過 gwo3	To emphasise an activity completed in the indeterminate past which no longer applies to the present situation	我 ngo 5 I ? hai 2 at/in 香港 hoeng 1 gong 2 Hong Kong 住過 zyu 6 gwo 3 live- EXP 一 jat 1 one 年 nin 4 year 我 ? 香港 住過 一 年 ngo5 hai2 {hoeng1 gong2} {zyu6gwo3} jat1 nin4 I at/in {Hong Kong} live-EXP one year I lived in Hong Kong for a year (but am now elsewhere)
Progressive	緊 gan2 緊 gan2	To emphasise a dynamic activity which may undergo a change of state	我 ngo 5 I 著緊 zoek 3 gan 2 wear- PROG 衫 saam 1 clothes 我 著緊 衫 ngo5 {zoek3 gan2} saam1 I wear-PROG clothes I am putting on clothes
Durative	住 zyu6 住 zyu6	To emphasise a continuous activity without a change of state	我 ngo 5 I 著住 zoek 3 zyu 6 wear- DUR 衫 saam 1 clothes 我 著住 衫 ngo5 {zoek3 zyu6} saam1 I wear-DUR clothes I am wearing clothes
Delimitative	? haa5 ? haa5	To emphasise an activity of brief duration	等 dang 2 Let 我 ngo 5 me 著? zoek 3 haa 5 wear- DEL 等 我 著? dang2 ngo5 {zoek3 haa5} Let me wear-DEL Let me wear it for a while
Habitual	開 hoi1 開 hoi1	To emphasise an activity protracted over a period of time to the point that it has become characteristic or habitual	我 ngo 5 I 做開 zou 6 hoi 1 do- HAB 鐘點 zung 1 dim 2 part-time ? ge 3 SFP 我 做開 鐘點 ? ngo5 {zou6 hoi1} {zung1 dim2} ge3 I do-HAB part-time SFP I normally work part-time
Inchoative	起 hei2 上 soeng5 ? lai4 起 上 ? hei2 soeng5 lai4	To emphasise the beginning of an activity	個 go 3 CL 阿? aa 3 bit 6 baby 突然之間 dat 6 jin 4 zi 1 gaan 1 suddenly 喊起上? haam 3 hei 2 soeng 5 lai 4 cry- INCH 個 阿? 突然之間 喊起上? go3 {aa3 bit6} {dat6 jin4 zi1 gaan1} {haam3 hei2 soeng5 lai4} CL baby suddenly cry-INCH The baby suddenly began crying
Continuative	落 去 落 去 lok6 heoi3	To emphasise the continuation of an activity	? nei 5 you ? m 4 NEG 使 si 2 /sai 2 need 再 zoi 3 again 講落去 gong 2 lok 6 heoi 3 speak- CONT 喇 laa 3 SFP ? ? 使 再 講落去 喇 nei5 m4 si2/sai2 zoi3 {gong2 lok6 heoi3} laa3 you NEG need again speak-CONT SFP You don't have to go on speaking
Returning	返 返 faan2	To emphasise the return of the "supposed state". Meanings can include: "continue a paused action" or "return to" (Example 1) Note: When added to an adjective, it can also function as a verb of "becoming (adjective) again". (Example 2)	? bei 2 Give 返 faan 1 back ? di 1 those 錢 cin 2 money 我 ngo 5 me ? 返 ? 錢 我 bei2 faan1 di1 cin2 ngo5 Give back those money me Give me the money back 個 go 3 the 天 tin 1 sky 未 mei 6 not yet 好 hou 2 good 返 faan 1 back 個 天 未 好 返 go3 tin1 mei6 hou2 faan1 the sky {not yet} good back The weather is not yet well

Final particles [ edit ]

Cantonese has many final particles to change the moods or sometimes even the meaning of an utterance. ^[1] They can also be added to an adjective and function as a verb "be (adjective)".

Particle	Usage	Example
? aa3 ? aa3	Used in neutral questions. Also used to soften the tone of affirmative statements so they don't sound as abrupt.	?去邊處?? Where are you going? 我返屋企? I'm going home.
? ge3 ? ge3	Used in assertions where something is emphasized (usually 係 hai6 is in front of what is being emphasized). Pronouncing it as ge2 adds a sense of puzzlement about the situation. This is equivalent to the Mandarin/written Chinese 的 dik1.	我係今日返屋企? I'm going home today. (the "today" is emphasized)
? gaa3 ? gaa3	Contraction of the combination ?? ge3 aa3.	?係幾時返來?? When are you coming back? (the "when" is emphasized)
? laa1 ? laa1	Used in requests and imperatives. This is one particle where leaving it out could make the sentence sound rude. This is equivalent to the Mandarin/written Chinese sentence final ? baa6.	?我? Give it to me [please].
喇 laa3 喇 laa3	Indicates a change of situation or a past event that has occurred and adds a sense of current relevance to the statement. This is equivalent to the Mandarin/written Chinese sentence final 了 liu5. Also used for polite refusal.	?返?屋企? He went home [already]. ?使喇，?該 No need, thank you.
? laak3 ? laak3	(same as 喇 laa3)
? lo1 ? lo1	Indicates a suggestion or conclusion that should be obvious (usually occurs with ? mai6).	我?車?返?到屋企? Without a car, [then of course] I am unable to go home.
? lo3 ? lo3	Indicates an agreement with the previous speaker.	好,我??返屋企? Okay, I will follow you home.
? ze1/zek1 ? ze1/zek1	Can be used to mean "only" or "that's all," or used to play down the significance of the situation.	?返一日? He's only coming back for one day.
? zaa3 ? zaa3	Contraction of the combination ??/?? ze1 aa3.	?返一日? He's only coming back for one day. (slightly harsher tone than ?返一日?)
? zaa4 ? zaa4	Contraction of the combination ??/?? ze1 aa4.	?返一日?? He's only coming back for one day? [Only one day? I wish it was more.]
添 tim1 添 tim1	Can be used to mean "also," "too," or "as well" in a sentence (usually occurs with 重 zung6).	我重要返屋企添 I still have to go home as well.
未 mei6 未 mei6	Used in questions asking whether an action has been done yet.	?返來未? Has he come back yet?
? me1 ? me1	Used in questions expressing surprise or disbelief.	?今日返來?? He's coming back today? [Really? I wasn't aware of this.]
? ne1 ? ne1	Used in follow up questions or when a question is repeated but for a different subject. Also used for rhetorical questions where an answer is not expected (especially when the speaker is wondering to themself).	?返?來,?返?返來?? He came back, are you coming back? ?點解返屋企?? I wonder why he's going home.
? maa3 ? maa3	Used to change a statement into a neutral question. This is used more often in Mandarin/written Chinese, but can still be heard in Cantonese.	?返屋企?? Are you coming home?
先 sin1 先 sin1	Can be used to mean "first" in a sentence. In questions, it may convey a sense of impatience.	我?等?返來先 We'll wait for him to come back first. ?返?返來先? Are you coming back or not? [Answer me quickly.]
? haa2 ? haa2	Used to soften an instruction, similar to adding "okay?" in English.	記得買?? Remember to buy milk, okay?
呵 ho2 呵 ho2	Used to check whether a statement is correct, similar to adding "right?" in English.	?買??呵? You bought the milk, right?
? aa1 ? aa1	Can indicate enthusiastic consent or a sarcastic retort. Can also be used like 喇 laa1.	好?! 我??返屋企?! Okay! I'll follow you home! 我點返屋企?? How am I supposed to be able to go home? (sarcastically) 返來? Come back [please].
? aa4 ? aa4	Used in questions expecting agreement, sometimes with a sense of disapproval.	?返屋企?? You're going home? [But really I don't want you to.]
? gaa4 ? gaa4	Contraction of the combination ?? ge3 aa4.	?係今日返屋企?? You're going home today? [But really I don't want you to. Can't you wait until tomorrow?] (the "today" is emphasized)
? gwaa3 ? gwaa3	Indicates uncertainty in a statement.	?返?屋企? He went home [but I'm not completely sure of this].
? wo3 ? wo3	Indicates information is being reported. Pronouncing it as wo5 adds the indication that the information is second-hand and the speaker may not agree with it.	??叫?返屋企? Father is telling you to come home.
? bo3 ? bo3	Indicates that the sentence is a reminder. Also used as a realization.	?車返屋企好快? It is quick to go home by car. (used in the context where the person being addressed may not have thought about driving home) ?車返屋企都好快? It is pretty quick to go home by car. [I didn't know that]

Final particles may sometimes combine to convey multiple moods. There are unwritten rules about which particles can be combined and in what order they occur which are probably too complicated to explain here. However, one good rule of thumb is that ? ge3 always comes before the other particles. In addition, the particles used in questions (? aa3, ? me1, ? ne1, ? maa3, etc.) always come last. ^{[2] [3]}

Particle	Usage	Example
? aa1 ? maa3 ? ? aa1 maa3	Used in response to a question where the answer is obvious.	?返屋企??! He's going home! [So of course he can't go to the movies with us.]
? laa1 ? maa3 ? ? laa1 maa3	Contraction of the combination 喇?? laa3 aa1 maa3.	?返?屋企??! He went home! [So of course he can't be here right now.]
? gaa1 ? maa3 ? ? gaa1 maa3	Contraction of ? and ??; used at the end of a sentence to express that it is something that the listener/reader should be aware of, or something that they are expected to agree with	????，使?理??? He's crazy. [You know already] Why bother with him? ?大條道理??，?使? You definitely have reason on your side. You needn't be afraid.
? zaa1 ? maa3 ? ? zaa1 maa3	Contraction of the combination ??? ze1 aa1 maa3.	?返一日??! He's only coming back for a day! [So of course he won't have time to visit all of us.]
之 zi1 ? maa3 之 ? zi1 maa3	Can be used to mean "only". Convey a sense of defensiveness.	我返屋企之? I'm only going home. [...and nothing else. What else are you expecting from me?]

Pronouns [ edit ]

Cantonese uses the following pronouns, which like in many other Sinitic languages, function as both nominative (English: I, he, we) and accusative (me, him, us):

	singular	plural
1st person	我 ngo 5 我 ngo5 I / me	我 ngo 5 ? dei 6 我 ? ngo5 dei6 we / us
2nd person	? nei 5 ? nei5 you (singular)	? nei 5 ? dei 6 ? ? nei5 dei6 you (plural)
3rd person	? keoi 5 ? keoi5 he / she / it	? keoi 5 ? dei 6 ? ? keoi5 dei6 they / them

Copula ("to be") [ edit ]

States and qualities are generally expressed using stative verbs that do not require the verb "to be". For example, to say "I am hungry", one would say 我?餓 ngo5 tou5 ngo6 (literally: I stomach hungry).

With noun complements, the verb 係 hai6 serves as the verb "to be".

Another use of 係 is in cleft constructions for emphasis, much like the English construction "It's ... that ...". The sentence particle ? ge3 is often found along with it.

To indicate location, the words ? hai2 (a "lazy" variation is ? hoeng2 ) which are collectively known as the locatives or sometimes coverbs in Chinese linguistics, are used to express "to be at":

(Here 而家 ji4 gaa1 means "now".)

Negations [ edit ]

Many negation words start with the sound m- in Cantonese; for example, ? m4 "not", ? mou5 "to not have (done sth)", 未 mei6 "not yet". Verbs are negated by adding the character ? m4 in front of it. For example:

我 ngo 5 1SG 食 sik 6 to eat 得 dak 1 can 花生 faa 1 sang 1 peanut 我 食 得 花生 ngo5 sik6 dak1 {faa1 sang1} 1SG {to eat} can peanut "I can eat peanuts"

${\displaystyle \longrightarrow }$

我 ngo 5 1SG ? m 4 NEG 食 sik 6 to eat 得 dak 1 can 花生 faa 1 sang 1 peanut 我 ? 食 得 花生 ngo5 m4 sik6 dak1 {faa1 sang1} 1SG NEG {to eat} can peanut "I can't eat peanuts"

The exception is the word 有 jau5 'to have', which turns into ? mou5 'to not have' without the use of ? m4 .

The negative imperative is formed by prefixing ?好 m4 hou2 (also pronounced mou2 ) or ? mai5 in front of the verb:

In contrast to the examples of sentential negation above where the entire sentence is negated, ? m4 can be used lexically to negate a single word. The negated word often differs slightly in meaning from the original word; that is, this lexical negation is a kind of derivation. Evidence for this is that they can be used with the perfective aspect particle ? zo2 , which is not possible with sententially negated verbs.

is perfectly acceptable, but

is ungrammatical. (The correct expression should be 我?食? ngo5 mou5 sik6 je5 : 我(I)?(did not)食(eat)?(something/anything), but actually with an emphasis on not doing an action, as it is the negation of 我有食? ngo5 yau5 sik6 je5 : 我(I)有(did)食(eat)?(something/anything).)

Questions [ edit ]

Questions are not formed by changing the word order as in English. Sentence final particles and certain interrogative constructions are used instead.

Yes?no questions [ edit ]

There are two ways to form a yes?no questions. One way is by the use of final particle and/or intonation alone. The question particle ? aa4 indicates surprise or disapproval. It tends to presuppose a positive answer.

The particle ? me1 is exclusively interrogative, indicating surprise and used to check the truth of an unexpected state of affairs.

A question may be indicated by a high rising intonation alone at the end of a question. (This intonation can be considered a nonsyllabic final particle indicating a question.) This intonation pattern usually modifies or exaggerates the basic tone of the last syllable. This type of question is used especially for echo, where the questioner repeats a statement out of surprise.

The other way to form yes?no questions uses a special construction in which the head of the predicate, say X , is replaced by X-not-X . Final particles may be used in addition.

• For example

? nei 5 you 識 sik 1 know 講 gong 2 speak 廣東話 Gwong 2 dung 1 waa 2 Cantonese ? 識 講 廣東話 nei5 sik1 gong2 {Gwong2 dung1 waa2} you know speak Cantonese You know how to speak Cantonese.

${\displaystyle \longrightarrow }$

? nei 5 you 識?識 sik 1 m 4 sik 1 know not know 講 gong 2 speak 廣東話? Gwong 2 dung 1 waa 2 Cantonese ? 識?識 講 廣東話? nei5 {sik1 m4 sik1} gong2 {Gwong2 dung1 waa2} you {know not know} speak Cantonese Do you know how speak Cantonese?

• As the negative form of 有 is ?, the corresponding yes?no question uses the form 有?:

有 jau 5 have 紅綠燈. hung 4 luk 6 dang 1 red-green-light 有 紅綠燈. jau5 {hung4 luk6 dang1} have red-green-light There is a traffic light.

${\displaystyle \longrightarrow }$

有? jau 5 mou 5 have not have 紅綠燈? hung 4 luk 6 dang 1 red-green-light 有? 紅綠燈? {jau5 mou5} {hung4 luk6 dang1} {have not have} red-green-light Is there a traffic light?

• As for 係 hai6 ("to be"), the yes?no question often uses the contraction 係? hai6 mai6 (note that ? mai6 is not the prohibitive ? mai2 ) instead of 係?係 hai6 m4 hai6 .

? keoi 5 (s)he 係 hai 6 is 加拿大人. gaa 1 naa 4 daai 6 jan 4 *2 Canada-person ? 係 加拿大人. keoi5 hai6 {gaa1 naa4 daai6 jan4*2} (s)he is Canada-person (S)he is a Canadian

${\displaystyle \longrightarrow }$

? keoi 5 (s)he 係? hai 6 mai 6 is isn't 加拿大人? gaa 1 naa 4 daai 6 jan 4 *2 Canada-person ? 係? 加拿大人? keoi5 {hai6 mai6} {gaa1 naa4 daai6 jan4*2} (s)he {is isn't} Canada-person Is (s)he a Canadian?

• With multisyllable verbs, only the first syllable is repeated:

? nei 5 you 鍾意 zung 1 ji 3 like 年?. nin 4 gou 1 year-cake ? 鍾意 年?. nei5 {zung1 ji3} {nin4 gou1} you like year-cake You like new-year cakes

${\displaystyle \longrightarrow }$

? nei 5 you 鍾?鍾意 zung 1 m 4 zung 1 ji 3 like not like 年?? nin 4 gou 1 year-cake ? 鍾?鍾意 年?? nei5 {zung1 m4 zung1 ji3} {nin4 gou1} you {like not like} year-cake Do you like new-year cakes?

• A special case is when a question asking whether something has occurred is formed. In a negative sentence, the adverb 未 mei6 should precede the verb to indicate that the event has not yet occurred. In yes?no questions, however, 未 appears at the end of the question (but before the final particle, if exists):

? nei 5 you 去過 heoi 3 gwo 3 go- EXP 德國. Dak 1 gwok 3 Germany ? 去過 德國. nei5 {heoi3 gwo3} {Dak1 gwok3} you go-EXP Germany You have been to Germany

${\displaystyle \longrightarrow }$

? nei 5 you 去過 heoi 3 gwo 3 go- EXP 德國 Dak 1 gwok 3 Germany 未? mei 6 *2 not-yet (the word 去過 after 未 is omitted to avoid repetition.) (tone changes to indicate a question.)   ? 去過 德國 未? nei5 {heoi3 gwo3} {Dak1 gwok3} mei6*2 you go-EXP Germany not-yet Have you ever been to Germany?

This form of yes?no questions looks less similar to the "X-not-X" type, but it is still considered in this type, because the "X" after "not" is omitted. For example, the example question above can be expanded as ?去過德國未去過? nei5 heoi3 gwo3 Dak1 gwok3 mei6 heoi3 gwo3 .

A syntax of yes?no question in the form "X-not-X" is actually a contraction of a combination of syntax of an affirmative sentence and the syntax of a negative sentence.

Interrogative words [ edit ]

• The interrogative words are as follows:

Interrogative	Pronunciation	English equivalent
邊個	bin1 go3	who
?(?) / ?	mat1 (je5) / me1e5	what
邊度 / 邊處	bin1 dou6 / bin1 syu3	where
幾時	gei2 si4	when
點解	dim2 gaai2	why
點	dim2	how about
點(樣)	dim2 (joeng6*2)	how (in what manner)
幾	gei2	how (adjective)
幾多	gei2 do1	how many/much

Questions use exactly the same word order as in statements. For example: ?係邊個? nei5 hai6 bin1 go3 "who are you?" (literally "you are who"), ?幾時去邊度見邊個?? nei5 gei2 si4 heoi3 bin1 dou6 gin3 bin1 go aa3 "When will you go? Where will you go and who will you meet?" (literally "you when go where meet who"). Note that more than one interrogative words can be put in a single sentence at a same time.

Demonstratives [ edit ]

The proximal demonstrative ("this"), is ? ni1 / nei1 , or more frequently in fast speech, 依 ji1 (+ measure word). For example:

?本書 ni1/nei1 bun2 syu1 "this book"

依本書 ji1 bun2 syu1 "this book"

The distal demonstrative ("that") is ? go2 . For example:

?本書 go2 bun2 syu1 "that book"

Between the demonstrative and its noun, a certain word to link them must be used, whether a corresponding classifier for the noun for singular count nouns or ? di1 for plural count nouns and mass nouns:

?架車 ni1/nei1 gaa3 ce1 "this car"

??車 ni1/nei1 di1 ce1 "these cars"

??水 go2 di1 seoi2 "that water"

Possessives [ edit ]

• For singular nouns, the word ? ge3 is roughly equivalent to English " 's":

• Plural nouns take ? di1 :

N.B.: ? di1 is a very versatile word in Cantonese, besides pluralizing certain phrases, it can also mean "a little/few", e.g. 一? jat1 di1 "a little", or 早? zou2 di1 "earlier" (literally: early + (intensifier)).

• Possessive pronouns (i.e. "mine", "his", "hers") are formed by adding ? ge3 after the pronoun.

However, in the case where there's an implied plural noun, one does not say:

For example:

?? ge3 aa3 is usually shortened in speech into one syllable, ?/? gaa3 .

• One could also say:

Both of these are generic possessives.

"Completing" the sentence [ edit ]

Cantonese relies on particles to complete a sentence in minimum structure. This is more important in spoken Cantonese. For some sentences, without particles, even it is grammatically correct, it would sound "robotic" and unnatural.

The minimum structure of a sentence in Cantonese is "Subject + Predicate".

The minimum structure can be a single V/O, usually in short response or direct speech (where the subject is omitted).

Example for only V: 我食?野 ngo5 sik6 zo2 je5 (I have eaten something) -> 食? sik6 zo2 (ate/eaten)

Even with the subject 我 and object 野 omitted, 食? is still a "complete" sentence which sounds natural in spoken Cantonese.

Without the ?, the sentence 我食野 ngo5 sik6 zo2 je5 (I eat something) is "incomplete" or unnatural.

Example for only S and O: ?? keoi5 leng3 (He/She/It, beautiful)is incomplete, but ?好? keoi5 ho2 leng3 (He/She/It, is so, beautiful) is complete.

In statements, particles are also used. Especially for adjectives, they cannot be directly associated with the verb 係 haai6 (be), and a particle is then required to "complete" the sentence. Adjectives are often used with particles to function as a verb "is (adjective)".

Example: 我係盲 ngo5 haai6 maang4 (I am blind) is "incomplete", but 我係盲? ngo5 haai6 maang4 ga3 (I am blind) is "complete".

The verb 係 can even be removed and the sentence is still completed (我盲?). With the particle ?, the adjective 盲 now function as a verb "is 盲".

To alter the mood or lead other focuses, other final particles can also be used to substitute the particle ?.

Differences from Mandarin grammar [ edit ]

The following Cantonese grammatical points are not found in Mandarin Chinese .

Word order [ edit ]

The direct object precedes the indirect object when using the verb ? bei2 "to give". In Mandarin verbs of giving, an indirect object precedes a direct object.

compared to Mandarin

Morphology [ edit ]

The suffix used for the plural of pronouns, ? dei6 , cannot associate with human nouns, unlike its similar Mandarin counterpart 們 -men . Mandarin 學生們 xueshengmen "the students" would be rendered in Cantonese as:

While the vocative use of 學生們 xueshengmen "students" would be rendered in Cantonese as:

There are words in Mandarin which often require the suffixes 子 -zi or 頭 -tou , but they are normally optional in Cantonese, e.g. Mandarin 鞋子 xiezi "shoe" and 石頭 shitou "rock" can be 鞋 haai4 and 石 sek6 in Cantonese.

Classifiers [ edit ]

Classifiers can be used instead of the possessive ? ge3 to indicate possession of a single object. Classifiers cannot be used this way in Mandarin.

Classifiers in both Cantonese and Mandarin can serve to individualize a noun, giving it a singular meaning (or plural in the case ? di1 ). However, such a construction in Mandarin will be of indefinite reference, unless a demonstrative (e.g. 這 zhe "this") or the universal quantifier (每 m?i "every") is present. Furthermore, there are great limitations on using this construction in subject position in Mandarin. In Cantonese, these restrictions do not exist.

Comparison [ edit ]

Adjective comparison in Cantonese is formed by adding the marker 過 gwo3 after an adjective. The adjective-marker construction serves as a transitive verb which takes the standard of comparison as an object.

In Standard Mandarin, comparison is marked by adding 比 b? , which serves in an adverbial phrase, leaving the adjective itself unchanged. The sentence above is translated into Mandarin as:

Alternatively the plural marker ? di1 alone (without the numeral 一 yat1 ) can be used use as the sole complement of the verbal adjective.

Aspect markers [ edit ]

Cantonese has a dedicated habitual aspect marker, 開 hoi1 , with no similar counterpart in Mandarin.

Passives [ edit ]

In Cantonese, there must always be an agent in a passive, while in Mandarin this isn't the case. If there's no known or specific agent, Cantonese must at least use 人 jan4 "someone" as a dummy agent.

Sentence particles [ edit ]

It is possible to stack various of such particles one after the other, while Mandarin is restricted to sentence-final 了 and one particle.

Pronouns [ edit ]

There is no gender distinction between the third person singulars of he, she and it in spoken or written Cantonese (?); however in written Cantonese of formal register, which is similar to Mandarin, male and female may be distinguished with two different characters, 他 for male and ? for female, ^[4] as well as ? for inanimate objects (including plants), ? for (non-human) animals, and ? for god(s), which all have the same pronunciation.

See also [ edit ]

• Chinese grammar

References [ edit ]