Group of ancient Semitic religions
The
Canaanite religion
was the group of
ancient Semitic religions
practiced by the
Canaanites
living in the ancient
Levant
from at least the early
Bronze Age
to the first centuries CE. Canaanite religion was
polytheistic
and, in some cases,
monolatristic
.
Beliefs
[
edit
]
Afterlife beliefs and cult of the dead
[
edit
]
Canaanites believed that following physical death, the
np?
(usually translated as "
soul
") departed from the body to the land of
Mot
(Death). Bodies were buried with
grave goods
, and offerings of food and drink were made to the dead to ensure that they would not trouble the living. Dead relatives were venerated and sometimes asked for help.
[1]
[2]
Cosmology
[
edit
]
None of the
inscribed tablets found since 1928
in the Canaanite city of
Ugarit
(destroyed c. 1200 BC) has revealed a
cosmology
. Syntheses are nearly impossible without
Hierombalus
and
Philo of Byblos
(c. 64?141 AD) via
Eusebius
, before and after much Greek and Roman influence in the region.
According to the pantheon, known in Ugarit as '
ilhm
(
Elohim
) or the children of
El
, supposedly obtained by Philo of Byblos from
Sanchuniathon
of Berythus (
Beirut
) the creator was known as Elion, who was the father of the divinities, and in the Greek sources he was married to Beruth (Beirut = the city). This marriage of the divinity with the city would seem to have Biblical parallels too with the stories of the link between
Melqart
and
Tyre
;
Chemosh
and
Moab
;
Tanit
and
Baal Hammon
in
Carthage
,
Yah
and
Jerusalem
.
The union of El Elyon and his consort Asherah would be representation of primordial Cronos and Rhea in Greek mythology or Roman Saturnus and Ops.
In Canaanite
mythology
there were twin mountains Targhizizi and Tharumagi which hold the firmament up above the earth-circling ocean, thereby bounding the earth.
W. F. Albright
, for example, says that
El Shaddai
is a derivation of a Semitic stem that appears in the Akkadian
shadu
("mountain") and
shadd?'u
or
shaddu'a
("mountain-dweller"), one of the names of Amurru. Philo of Byblos states that Atlas was one of the Elohim, which would clearly fit into the story of El Shaddai as "God of the Mountain(s)". Harriet Lutzky has presented evidence that Shaddai was an attribute of a Semitic goddess, linking the epithet with Hebrew
?ad
"breast" as "the one of the Breast". The idea of two mountains being associated here as the breasts of the Earth, fits into the Canaanite mythology quite well. The ideas of pairs of mountains seem to be quite common in Canaanite mythology. The late period of this cosmology makes it difficult to tell what influences (Roman, Greek, or Hebrew) may have informed Philo's writings.
Mythology
[
edit
]
In the
Baal Cycle
, Ba'al Hadad is challenged by and defeats Yam, using two magical weapons (called "Driver" and "Chaser") made for him by
Kothar-wa-Khasis
. Afterward, with the help of Athirat and Anat, Ba'al persuades El to allow him a palace. El approves, and the palace is built by Kothar-wa-Khasis. After the palace is constructed, Ba'al gives forth a thunderous roar out of the palace window and challenges Mot. Mot enters through the window and swallows Ba'al, sending him to the Underworld. With no one to give rain, there is a terrible drought in Ba'al's absence. The other deities, especially El and Anat, are distraught that Ba'al had been taken to the Underworld. Anat goes to the Underworld, attacks Mot with a knife, grinds him up into pieces, and scatters him far and wide. With Mot defeated, Ba'al is able to return and refresh the Earth with rain.
[3]
List of deities
[
edit
]
A group of
deities
in a four-tier hierarchy headed by
El
and
Asherah
[a]
[b]
were worshipped by the followers of the Canaanite religion; this is a detailed listing:
[6]
- Aglibol
, god of the moon and brother of Malakbel. Part of a trio of gods of Palmyra, Syria, along with Bel and Yarhibol. Also part of another trio with Baalshamin and Malakbel.
- Anat
, virgin goddess of war and strife, sister and putative mate of
Ba?al Hadad
.
- Arsay
, goddess of the underworld, one of the three daughters of Ba'al Hadad.
- Arsu
, god of the evening star and twin brother of Azizos.
- Ashtar-Chemosh
, wife of
Chemosh
and goddess of the Moabites.
- Asherah
, queen consort of
El
(
Ugaritic religion
),
Elkunirsa
(
Hittite religion
),
Yahweh
(
Israelite religion
),
Amurru
(
Amorite religion
),
Anu
(
Akkadian religion
) and
'Amm
(
Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia
)
[7]
Symbolized by an
Asherah pole
in the Hebrew Bible.
- Ashima
, goddess of fate
- Astarte
, goddess of war, hunting and love.
- Atargatis
, wife of Hadad, goddess of fertility and the chief goddess of northern Syria
- Attar
, god of the morning star ("son of the morning") who tried to take the place of the dead Baal and failed. Male counterpart of Athtart.
- Azizos
, god of the morning star and twin brother of Arsu.
- Baalah
, properly Ba?alah, the wife or female counterpart of
Baal
(also
Belili
)
[8]
- Ba'alat Gebal
, goddess of Byblos, Phoenicia
- Hadad
, often known as
Ba?al
"Lord", god of storms, thunder, lightning and air. King of the gods. Uses the weapons Driver and Chaser in battle. Often referred to as
Baalshamin
.
[9]
- Ba'al Hermon
, titular local deity of Mount Hermon.
- Baal Hammon
, god of vegetative fertility and renewer of all energies of
Ancient Carthage
- Baalshamin
also called Baal Shamem and Baal Shamaim, supreme sky god of Palmyra, Syria whose temple was destroyed on 23 August 2015 by
ISIL
. His attributes were the eagle and the lightning bolt. Part of trinity of deities along with Aglibol and Malakbel.
[10]
- Baal-zephon
or Baalzephon, properly Ba?al Zaphon or ?aphon. Alternate form of Baal Hadad as lord of Mount Zaphon.
- Bel
, or Bol,
[11]
was the chief god of Palmyra, Syria whose temple was destroyed on August 30, 2015, by ISIL.
[12]
- Bethel
, who became popular during the
Neo-Babylonian Empire
in the Syria region and in the
Samarian-Judean diaspora settlement of Elephantine, Egypt
- Chemosh
, possibly one of the sons of El, a god of war and destruction and the national god of the Moabites and the Ammonites.
- Dagon
(Dagan) god of crop fertility and grain, father of Ba'al Hadad
- El
, also called
'
Il
or
Elyon
("Most High"), god of creation, husband of Athirat.
[c]
[d]
- Eretz, goddess of the earth
- Eshmun
, god, or as
Baalat Asclepius
, goddess, of healing
- Gad
, god of fortune
- Gupan and Ugar
, messenger gods of the weather god Baal, who always appear as a pair.
- Haurun
, an underworld god,
co-ruler of the underworld, twin brother of Melqart, a son of Mot.
Bethoron
in Israel, takes its name from Horon.
[
citation needed
]
- I??ara
, a goddess of
Eblaite
origin
- Ishat, goddess of fire, wife of Moloch. She was slain by
Anat
.
[14]
[15]
[16]
- Kotharat
, seven goddesses of marriage and pregnancy
- Kothar-wa-Khasis
, the skilled god of craftsmanship, created Yagrush and Aymur (Driver and Chaser) the weapons used by the god Ba'al Hadad.
- Lotan
, the twisting, seven-headed serpent ally of Yam.
- Malakbel
, god of the sun, vegetation, welfare, angel of Bel and brother of Agilbol. Part of a trinity of deities in Palmyra, Syria along with Aglibol and Baalshamin.
- Manuzi
, god of weather and husband of Liluri. Bulls were sacrificed to both of them.
- Marqod
, god of dance
- Melqart
, "king of the city", god of Tyre, the underworld and cycle of vegetation in
Tyre
, co-ruler of the underworld, twin brother of Horon and son of Mot.
- Milcom
, national god of the
Ammonites
.
- Misor
, twin brother of Sydyk.
- Moloch
, putative god of fire, husband of Ishat,
[18]
may be identified with Milcom.
- Mot
or Maweth, god of death (not worshiped or given offerings)
- Nikkal-wa-Ib
, goddess of orchards and fruit
- Pidray, goddess of light and lightning, one of the three daughters of Ba'al Hadad.
[19]
- Qadeshtu
, lit. "Holy One", putative goddess of love, desire and lust. Also a title of
Asherah
.
- Qos
, national god of the
Edomites
- Resheph
, god of plague and of healing
- Shadrafa
, god of medicine or healing
- Shachar
and
Shalim
, twin mountain gods of dawn and dusk, respectively. Shalim was linked to the netherworld via the evening star and associated with peace
[20]
- Shamayim
(lit. "skies"), god of the heavens
[
citation needed
]
- Shapash
, also transliterated Shapshu, goddess of the sun; sometimes equated with the
Mesopotamian
sun god
Shamash
,
[17]
(p418)
whose gender is disputed. Some authorities consider Shamash a goddess.
[21]
- Sydyk
, the god of righteousness or justice, sometimes twinned with
Misor
, and linked to the planet Jupiter
[22]
[23]
- Tallai, the goddess of winter, snow, cold and dew, one of the three daughters of Ba'al Hadad.
[24]
- Yam
(lit. sea-river) the god of the sea and rivers,
[25]
also called Judge Nahar (judge of the river)
[26]
[27]
[28]
[
full citation needed
]
- Yarhibol
, solar god and "lord of the spring". Part of a trinity of co-supreme gods of Palmyra, Syria along with Aglibol and Bel.
- Yarikh
, god of the moon and husband of Nikkal. The city of
Jericho
was likely his cultic center.
Practices
[
edit
]
Religious practices
[
edit
]
Archaeological investigations at the site of
Tell es-Safi
have found the remains of donkeys, as well as some sheep and goats in Early Bronze Age layers, dating to 4,900 years ago which were imported from Egypt in order to be sacrificed. One of the sacrificial animals, a complete donkey, was found beneath the foundations of a building, leading to speculation this was a 'foundation deposit' placed before the building of a residential house.
[29]
It is considered virtually impossible to reconstruct a clear picture of Canaanite religious practices. Although child sacrifice was known to surrounding peoples, there is no reference to it in ancient Phoenician or Classical texts. The biblical representation of Canaanite religion is always negative.
[30]
Ronald Hendel believes the Israelites disparaged the Canaanite religion because they wanted to disassociate themselves from their Canaanite ancestors and form a new national identity.
[31]
Canaanite religious practice had a high regard for the duty of children to care for their parents, with sons being held responsible for burying them, and arranging for the maintenance of their tombs.
[32]
Canaanite deities such as Baal were represented by figures which were placed in shrines, often on hilltops, or 'high places' surrounded by groves of trees, such as is condemned in the Hebrew Bible, in Hosea (v 13a) which would probably hold the Asherah pole, and standing stones or pillars.
[33]
Funerary rites
[
edit
]
Funerary rites held an important role in Canaanite religion and included rituals to honor the deceased and to feed the “np?” (the origin of the Hebrew word “????? and usually translated as soul) as it moved on to Mot, the land of death. Rituals to honor the deceased included offerings of
incense
,
libations
,
music
, the singing of devotional songs, and sometimes trance rituals, oracles, and necromancy.
Excavations in
Tel Megiddo
have offered greater insight into Canaanite funerary practices. A large number of wine vessels have been found in the graves there, as well as vessels of beeswax, animal fat, olive oil, resin, and even vanilla. These
grave goods
may have been used as part of a funerary feast, as offerings to the dead, or both. Additionally, evidence of
opium
use was found at "a Late Bronze Age site in the southern Levant". The presence of grave goods may suggest similarities between Canaanite practices and the
Ancient Egyptian
custom of providing the deceased with supplies for the afterlife.
[34]
History
[
edit
]
The Canaanites
[
edit
]
The Levant region was inhabited by people who themselves referred to the land as 'ca-na-na-um' as early as the mid-second millennium BC.
[35]
There are a number of possible
etymologies
for the word referred. The etymology of "Canaan" is unknown.
While "
Phoenician
" and "
Canaanite
" refer to the same culture, archaeologists and historians commonly refer to the
Bronze Age
, pre-1200 BC Levantines as Canaanites; and their
Iron Age
descendants, particularly those living on the coast, as Phoenicians. More recently, the term Canaanite has been used for the secondary Iron Age states of the interior (including the
Philistines
and the states of
Israel
and
Judah
)
[e]
[f]
[36]
that were not ruled by
Arameans
? a separate and closely related ethnic group.
[38]
[
full citation needed
]
The DNA of the modern Arab and Jewish people matches the DNA of the ancient Canaanites.
[39]
Influences
[
edit
]
Canaanite religion was strongly influenced by their more powerful and populous neighbors, and shows clear influence of
Mesopotamian
and
Egyptian
religious practices. Like other people of the Ancient Near East Canaanite religious beliefs were
polytheistic
, with families typically focusing on
veneration of the dead
in the form of household gods and goddesses, the
Elohim
, while acknowledging the existence of other deities such as
Baal
and
El
,
Mot
,
Qos
, Asherah and Astarte. Kings also played an important religious role and in certain ceremonies, such as the
hieros gamos
of the
New Year
, may have been revered as gods. "At the center of Canaanite religion was royal concern for religious and political legitimacy and the imposition of a divinely ordained legal structure, as well as peasant emphasis on fertility of the crops, flocks, and humans."
[40]
[41]
Robert G. Boling argues that there was no "local pantheon" in Canaan. Instead, the Canaanites selectively worshipped the "most important and interesting deities" from their neighbors, gave them multiple names and omitted their geographic origins. Like language, their gods also varied over time. Boling finds this unsurprising because Canaan was a land bridge between Asia and Africa, where cross-cultural exchange was frequent.
[42]
Carthage
[
edit
]
Punic religion in the western Mediterranean was a direct continuation of the
Phoenician
variety of the
polytheistic
ancient Canaanite religion. However, significant local differences developed over the centuries following the foundation of
Carthage
and other
Punic
communities elsewhere in
North Africa
, southern Spain,
Sardinia
, western
Sicily
, and
Malta
from the ninth century BC onward. After the conquest of these regions by the
Roman Republic
in the third and second centuries BC, Punic religious practices continued, surviving until the fourth century AD in some cases.
Hellenistic period
[
edit
]
Throughout the
Hellenistic period
, in the non-
Jewish
parts of Canaan,
Greek religion
grew alongside pre-existing Canaanite traditions rather than replacing them. From the ancient Canaanite practice of outdoor worship, the Greek custom of worshipping
Zeus
on a simple altar atop
Mount Ida
or
Olympus
cannot have appeared all that odd. The new masters conferred Greek names on the ancient Canaanite deities.
[43]
Contact with other areas
[
edit
]
Canaanite religion was influenced by its peripheral position, intermediary between Egypt and Mesopotamia, whose religions had a growing impact upon Canaanite religion. For example, during the
Hyksos
period, when chariot-mounted
maryannu
ruled in Egypt, at their capital city of
Avaris
, Baal became associated with the Egyptian god
Set
, and was considered identical; particularly with Set in his form as Sutekh. Iconographically henceforth, Baal was shown wearing the crown of
Lower Egypt
and shown in the Egyptian-like stance, one foot set before the other. Similarly
Athirat
(known by her later Hebrew name Asherah),
Athtart
(known by her later Greek name Astarte), and
Anat
henceforth were portrayed wearing
Hathor
-like Egyptian wigs.
From the other direction,
Jean Bottero
has suggested that
Ya
of
Ebla
(a possible precursor of
Yam
) was equated with the
Mesopotamian
god
Ea
during the
Akkadian Empire
. In the Middle and Late Bronze Age, there are also strong
Hurrian
and
Mitannite
influences upon the Canaanite religion. The Hurrian goddess
Hebat
was worshiped in
Jerusalem
, and
Baal
was closely considered equivalent to the Hurrian storm god
Teshub
and the
Hittite
storm god,
Tarhunt
. Canaanite divinities seem to have been almost identical in form and function to the neighboring
Arameans
to the east, and Baal Hadad and El can be distinguished amongst earlier
Amorites
, who at the end of the Early
Bronze Age
invaded
Mesopotamia
.
Carried west by
Phoenician
sailors, Canaanite religious influences can be seen in
Greek mythology
, particularly in the tripartite division between the
Olympians
Zeus
,
Poseidon
and
Hades
, mirroring the division between
Baal
,
Yam
and
Mot
, and in the story of the
Labours of Hercules
, mirroring the stories of the
Tyrian
Melqart
, who was often equated with Heracles.
[44]
Sources
[
edit
]
Present-day knowledge of Canaanite religion comes from:
Literary sources
[
edit
]
Until
Claude F. A. Schaefer
began excavating in 1929 at Ras Shamra in northern
Syria
(the site historically known as
Ugarit
), and the discovery of its Bronze Age archive of
clay tablets
written in an
alphabetical cuneiform
,
[46]
modern scholars knew little about Canaanite religion, as few records have survived.
Papyrus
seems to have been the preferred writing medium, but whereas in Egypt papyrus may survive centuries in the extremely dry climate, Canaanite records have simply decayed in the humid
Mediterranean climate
.
[47]
As a result, the accounts contained within the
Bible
represented almost the only sources of information on ancient Canaanite religion. This record was supplemented by a few secondary and tertiary Greek sources: (
Lucian
's
On the Syrian Goddess
, fragments of the
Phoenician History
of Philo of Byblos, and the writings of
Damascius
). More recently, detailed study of the Ugaritic material, of other inscriptions from the Levant and also of the
Ebla
archive from Tel Mardikh, excavated in 1960 by a joint Italo-Syrian team, have cast more light on the early Canaanite religion.
[47]
[48]
According to
The Encyclopedia of Religion
, the Ugarit texts represent one part of a larger religion that was based on the religious teachings of Babylon. The Canaanite scribes who produced the
Baal
texts were also trained to write in Babylonian cuneiform, including Sumerian and Akkadian texts of every genre.
[49]
Archaeological sources
[
edit
]
Archaeological excavations
in the last few decades have unearthed more about the religion of the ancient Canaanites.
[38]
The excavation of the city of
Ras Shamra
(1928 onwards) and the discovery of its Bronze Age archive of clay-tablet
alphabetic
cuneiform
texts provided a wealth of new information. Detailed study of the Ugaritic material, of other inscriptions from the Levant and also of the
Ebla
archive from Tel Mardikh, excavated in 1960 by a joint Italo-Syrian team, have cast more light on the early Canaanite religion.
[
citation needed
]
- ^
"Handy (1994:176,177) describes the four hierarchical levels in Syro-Palestinian mythology. The first level consists of the deity El (or his equivalents) and Asherah. The second level consists of the active deities or patron gods, for example Baal, and the third, the artisan gods, for example Kothar-wa-Khasis. The lowest level consists of the messenger gods, who have no independent volition, which Handy equates with the "angels" of the Bible."
[4]
- ^
Per the Syro-Palestinian perception of the cosmos, the fourfold hierarchy of the divine realm may be diagrammed as follows: Authoritative Deities: El; Active Deities: Baal; Artisan Deities: Kothar; Messenger Deities:
gpn w ugr
...
[5]
- ^
[Deuteronomy 32:8?9] suggests that
Yahweh
, originally a warrior-god from Sinai / Paran / Edom / Teiman, was known separately from
El
at an early point in early Israel.
[13]
- ^
Whereas the Israelites originated as Bronze Age Canaanites, the origin of Yahweh is indeterminate (see
Yahweh §Bronze Age origins
). Following the introduction of Yahweh (localized to the
Iron Age
kingdoms of
Israel (Samaria)
and
Judah
), a shift in
theophoric
naming occurred in which the original and most ancient biblical
names paying tribute to El
(Isra
el
, Dani
el
, Samu
el
, Micha
el
etc.) began to be displaced by
names paying tribute to Yahweh
.
Mark S. Smith
sees the conflation of El and Yahweh as part of the process which he describes as "convergence" in the period of the
Judges
and the early monarchy. Convergence saw the coalescence of the qualities of other deities, and even the deities themselves, into Yahweh.
[50]
Thus El became identified as a name of Yahweh, while Asherah ceased to be a distinct goddess. And the attributes of El, Asherah, and Baal (notably, for Baal, his identification as a storm-god) were assimilated into Yahweh.
Some of the idiosyncratic aspects of Yahweh are described by Smith as "differentiation" in the period from the 9th century BC through to the
Exile
. Differentiation identified and rejected certain Canaanite features i.e. Baal, child sacrifice, the asherah, worship of the sun and moon, and the cults of the "high places".
[51]
- ^
Ancient Israel and Judah were not "communities of faith" as distinct from any of their neighbours, all of whom had their own deities also. We cannot know in much detail what the religions of these ancient societies were, but the books of
Judges
and
Kings
and the archaeological evidence all agree that much religious practice in these two kingdoms largely conformed to local patterns ("worshipping the Baals").
[36]
- ^
The Bible, I think, is neither historical nor historiographical, but a secondary collection of tradition.
[37]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
Segal, Alan F.
Life after death: a history of the afterlife in the religions of the West
- ^
Annette Reed (11 February 2005).
"Life, Death, and Afterlife in Ancient Israel and Canaan"
(PDF)
. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 8 May 2005
. Retrieved
1 October
2014
.
- ^
Wilkinson, Philip
(2009). "Myths of Ugarit".
Myths and Legends: An Illustrated Guide to Their Origins and Meanings
. Dorling Kindersley. pp. 158?159.
ISBN
1405344032
. Retrieved
25 April
2024
.
- ^
Evans, Annette H.M. (2007).
Monotheism and Yahweh: The development of Jewish ideas of angels: Egyptian and Hellenistic connections, ca. 600 BC to ca. 200 BC
(Ph.D. thesis). Stellenbosch University. p. 291.
- ^
Handy, Lowell K. (1994).
"Summary ? cosmic hierarchy"
.
Among the Host of Heaven: The Syro-Palestinian pantheon as bureaucracy
. Eisenbrauns. pp. 169?170.
ISBN
978-0-931464-84-3
.
- ^
Tannen, Trudy.
"Canaanite Religion"
. Archived from
the original
on 12 May 2014
. Retrieved
26 December
2020
.
- ^
"Athirat"
. 23 December 2020
. Retrieved
26 December
2020
.
- ^
Guisepi, Robert.
"Canaanite culture and religion"
.
history-world.org
. Archived from the original on 8 August 2017
. Retrieved
26 December
2020
.
{{
cite web
}}
: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
link
)
- ^
"Baal"
.
Encyclopædia Britannica
. Retrieved
26 December
2020
.
- ^
"Extremists blow up Baalshamin Temple at Palmyra, in pictures"
.
The Telegraph
. 25 August 2015
. Retrieved
26 December
2020
.
- ^
Teixidor, Javier (1979).
The Pantheon of Palmyra
. Brill Archive. p. 1.
ISBN
90-04-05987-3
.
- ^
Quinn, Ben (1 September 2015).
"ISIS destruction of Palmyra's Temple of Bel revealed in satellite images"
.
The Guardian
. Retrieved
26 December
2020
.
- ^
Smith, Mark S. (2002).
The Early History of God: Yahweh and the other deities in ancient Israel
. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 32f, n. 45.
ISBN
978-0-8028-3972-5
.
- ^
Gorelick, Leonard; Williams-Forte, Elizabeth;
Ancient seals and the Bible
. International Institute for Mesopotamian Area Studies. p. 32.
- ^
Dietrich, Manfried; Loretz, Oswald; Ugarit-Forschungen:
Internationales Jahrbuch fur die Altertumskunde Syrien-Palastinas
, volume 31. p. 362.
- ^
Kang, Sa-Moon,
Divine war in the Old Testament and in the ancient Near East
. p. 79.
- ^
a
b
Johnston, Sarah Isles (30 November 2004).
Religions of the Ancient World: A guide
. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
ISBN
0-674-01517-7
.
- ^
"alleged but not securely attested", according to
[17]
(p335)
- ^
Wiggins, Steve (2003).
"Pidray, Tallay, and Arsay in the Baal Cycle"
.
Journal of Northwest Semitic Language
.
29
: 83?101.
- ^
Botterweck, G.J.; Ringgren, H.; Fabry, H.J. (2006).
Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament
. Vol. 15. Alban Books Limited. p. 24.
ISBN
978-0-8028-2339-7
. Retrieved
15 December
2014
.
- ^
Wyatt, Nick (19 July 2005).
There's Such Divinity Doth Hedge a King
. Ashgate. p. 104.
ISBN
978-0-7546-5330-1
.
- ^
"26 Religions"
. University of Utah. Archived from
the original
on 24 February 2020
. Retrieved
26 December
2020
.
- ^
Kohler, Kaufmann; Singer, Isidore.
"Melchizedek"
.
The Jewish Encyclopedia
. Retrieved
26 December
2020
.
- ^
Gordon, Cyrus H. (1965).
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Sources
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edit
]
- Moscatti, Sabatino (1968).
The World of the Phoenicians
. Phoenix / Giant.
- Ribichini, Sergio (1997). "Beliefs and religious life". In Sabatino, Maoscati (ed.).
The Phoenicians
. Rissoli.
- van der Toorn, Karel (1995).
Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible
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- Haanat, Lilinah (ed.).
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- Dawson, Tess (2009).
Whisper of Stone. Natib Qadish: Modern Canaanite Religion
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ISBN
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.
External links
[
edit
]