Imperial title in the Roman Empire
Caesar
(
Latin:
[?kae?.sar]
English
pl.
Caesars
;
Latin
pl.
Caesares
; in Greek:
Κα?σαρ
Kaisar
) is a
title
of
imperial
character. It derives from the
cognomen
of the
Roman dictator
Julius Caesar
. The change from being a surname to a title used by the
Roman emperors
can be traced to AD 68, following the fall of the
Julio-Claudian dynasty
. When used on its own, the title denoted
heirs apparent
, which would later adopt the title
Augustus
on accession.
The title remained an essential part of the style of the emperors, and became the word for "
emperor
" in some languages, such as German (
kaiser
) and Russian (
tsar
).
Origins
[
edit
]
The first known individual to bear the
cognomen
of "Caesar" was
Sextus Julius Caesar
, who is likewise believed to be the common ancestor of all subsequent
Julii Caesares
.
[2]
[3]
Sextus's great-grandson was the dictator
Gaius Julius Caesar
, who seized control of the
Roman Republic
following his
war
against the
Senate
. He appointed himself as
dictator perpetuo
("dictator in perpetuity"), a title he held for only about a month before he was
assassinated
in 44 BC. Julius Caesar's death did not lead to the restoration of the Republic, and instead led to the rise of the
Second Triumvirate
, which was made up of three generals, including Julius' adopted son
Gaius Octavius
.
Following
Roman naming conventions
, Octavius adopted the name of his adoptive father, thus also becoming "Gaius Julius Caesar", though he was often called "Octavianus" to avoid confusion. He styled himself simply as "Gaius Caesar" to emphasize his relationship with Julius Caesar.
[4]
Eventually, distrust and jealousy between the triumvirs led to a lengthy civil war which ultimately ended with Octavius gaining control of the entire Roman world in 30 BC. In 27 BC, Octavius was given the honorific
Augustus
by the Senate, adopting the name of "Imperator Caesar Augustus". He had previously dropped all his names except for "Caesar", which he treated as a
nomen
, and had adopted the victory title
imperator
("commander") as a new
praenomen
.
[5]
As a matter of course, Augustus's own adopted son and successor,
Tiberius
, followed his (step)father's example and bore the name "Caesar" following his adoption on 26 June 4 AD, restyling himself as "Tiberius Julius Caesar". Upon his own ascension to the throne, he styled himself as "Tiberius Caesar Augustus". The precedent was thus then set: the Emperor, styled as "Augustus", designated his successor by adopting him and giving him the name "Caesar".
The fourth Emperor,
Claudius
(in full, "Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus"), was the first to assume the name without having been adopted by the previous emperor. However, he was at least a member of the
Julio-Claudian dynasty
, being the maternal great-nephew of Augustus on
his mother
's side, the nephew of Tiberius, and the uncle of
Caligula
(who was also called "Gaius Julius Caesar"). Claudius, in turn, adopted his stepson and grand-nephew Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, giving him the name "Caesar" in addition to his own
nomen
, "Claudius". His stepson thus became "
Nero
Claudius Caesar Augustus".
Dynastic title
[
edit
]
The first emperor to assume both the position and name without any real claim was
Galba
, who took the throne under the name "Servius Galba Caesar Augustus" following the death of Nero in AD 68. Galba helped solidify "Caesar" as the title of the designated heir by giving it to his own adopted heir,
Piso Licinianus
.
[6]
His reign did not last long, however, and he was soon killed by
Otho
, who became "Marcus Otho Caesar Augustus". Otho was then defeated by
Vitellius
, who became "Aulus Vitellius Germanicus Augustus", adopting the
victory title
"Germanicus" instead. Nevertheless, "Caesar" had become such an integral part of the imperial dignity that its place was immediately restored by
Vespasian
, who ended the civil war and established the
Flavian dynasty
in AD 69, ruling as "Imperator Caesar Vespasianus Augustus".
The placement of the name "Caesar" varied among the early emperors. It usually came right before the
cognomen
(
Vespasian
,
Titus
,
Domitian
,
Trajan
,
Hadrian
); a few placed it right after it (
Galba
,
Otho
,
Nerva
). The imperial formula was finally standardised during the reign of
Antoninus Pius
. Antoninus, born "Titus Aurelius Antoninus", became "Titus Aelius Caesar Antoninus" after his adoption but ruled as "Imperator Caesar Titus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Augustus Pius". The imperial formula thus became "
Imperator Caesar
[name]
Augustus
" for emperors. Heir-apparents added "Caesar" to their names, placing it after their
cognomen
.
Caesars occasionally were given the honorific
princeps iuventutis
("First among the Youth") and, starting with the 3rd century,
nobilissimus
("Most Noble").
Later developments
[
edit
]
Crisis of the Third Century
[
edit
]
The popularity of using the title
caesar
to designate heirs-apparent increased throughout the third century. Many of the soldier-emperors during the
Crisis of the Third Century
attempted to strengthen their legitimacy by naming their sons as heirs with the title of
caesar
, namely
Maximinus Thrax
,
Philip the Arab
,
Decius
,
Trebonianus Gallus
,
Gallienus
and
Carus
. With the exception of
Verus Maximus
and
Valerian II
all of them were later either promoted to the rank of
augustus
within their father's lifetime (like
Philip II
) or succeeded as
augusti
after their father's death (
Hostilian
and
Numerian
). The same title would also be used in the
Gallic Empire
, which operated autonomously from the rest of the Roman Empire from 260 to 274, with the final Gallic emperor
Tetricus I
appointing his heir
Tetricus II
as
caesar
and his consular colleague.
Despite the best efforts of these emperors, however, the granting of this title does not seem to have made succession in this chaotic period any more stable. Almost all
caesares
would be killed before, or alongside, their fathers, or, at best, outlive them for a matter of months, as in the case of
Hostilian
. The sole
caesar
to successfully obtain the rank of
augustus
and rule for some time in his own right was
Gordian III
, and even he was heavily controlled by his court.
Tetrarchy and Diarchy
[
edit
]
In 293,
Diocletian
established the
Tetrarchy
, a system of rule by two senior emperors and two junior colleagues. The two coequal senior emperors were styled identically to previous Emperors, as
augustus
(in plural,
augusti
). The two junior colleagues were styled identically to previous Emperors-designate, as
nobilissimus caesar
. Likewise, the junior colleagues retained the title
caesar
upon becoming full emperors. The
caesares
of this period are sometimes referred as "emperors", with the Tetrarchy being a "rule of four emperors", despite being clearly subordinate of the
augusti
and thus not actually sovereigns.
[8]
The Tetrarchy collapsed as soon as Diocletian stepped down in 305, resulting in a
lengthy civil war
. Constantine reunited the Empire 324, after defeating the Eastern emperor
Licinius
. The tetrarchic division of power was abandoned, although the divisions of the
praetorian prefectures
were maintained. The title
caesar
continued to be used, but now merely as a ceremorial honorific for young heirs. Constantine had four
caesares
at the time of his death: his sons
Constantius II
,
Constantine II
,
Constans
and his nephew
Dalmatius
, with his eldest son
Crispus
having been executed in mysterious circumstances earlier in his reign. He would be succeeded only by his three sons, with Dalmatius dying in the summer of 337 in similarly murky circumstances.
[9]
Constantius II himself would nominate as
caesares
his cousins
Constantius Gallus
and
Julian
in succession in the 350s, although he first executed Gallus and then found himself at war with Julian before his own death. After Julian's revolt of 360, the title fell out of imperial fashion for some time, with emperors preferring simply to elevate their sons directly to
augustus
, starting with
Gratian
in 367.
[9]
The title would be revived in 408 when
Constantine III
gave it to his son
Constans II
,
[10]
and then in 424 when
Theodosius II
gave it to his nephew
Valentinian III
before successfully installing him upon the western throne as
augustus
in 425.
[9]
Thereafter it would receive limited use in the Eastern Empire; for example, it was given to
Leo II
in 472 several months before
his grandfather
's death. In the Western Empire,
Palladius
, the son of emperor
Petronius Maximus
, became the last person bearing the title
caesar
in 455.
Byzantine Empire
[
edit
]
Caesar
or
Kaisar
(
Κα?σαρ
) remained a senior court title in the Eastern or
Byzantine Empire
. Originally, as in the classical
Roman Empire
, it was used for the heir apparent, and was first among the "awarded" dignities. From the reign of
Theodosius I
, however, most emperors chose to solidify the succession of their intended heirs by raising them to co-emperors, i.e.
augustus
. Hence the title was more frequently awarded to second- and third-born sons, or to close and influential relatives of the Emperor: for example,
Alexios Mosele
who was the son-in-law of
Theophilos
(ruled 829?842),
Bardas
who was the uncle and chief minister of
Michael III
(r. 842?867), and
Nikephoros II
(r. 963?969) who awarded the title to his father,
Bardas Phokas
.
An exceptional case was the conferment of the dignity and its insignia to the
Bulgarian
khan
Tervel
by
Justinian II
(r. 685?695, 705?711) who had helped him regain his throne in 705.
The title was awarded to the brother of Empress
Maria of Alania
,
George II of Georgia
in 1081.
[13]
The office enjoyed extensive privileges, great prestige and power. When
Alexios I Komnenos
created the title of
sebastokrator
,
kaisar
became third in importance, and fourth after
Manuel I Komnenos
created the title of
despot
, which it remained until the end of the Empire. The feminine form was
kaisarissa
. It remained an office of great importance, usually awarded to imperial relations, as well as a few high-ranking and distinguished officials, and only rarely awarded to foreigners.
[14]
According to the
Kl?torologion
of 899, the Byzantine
caesar
'
s insignia were a crown without a cross, and the ceremony of a
caesar
'
s creation (in this case dating to
Constantine V
), is included in
De Ceremoniis
I.43.
The title remained the highest in the imperial hierarchy until the introduction of the
sebastokrat?r
(a composite derived from
sebastos
and
autokrator
, the Greek equivalents of
augustus
and
imperator
) by
Alexios I Komnenos
(r. 1081?1118) and later of
despot?s
by
Manuel I Komnenos
(r. 1143?1180). The title remained in existence through the last centuries of the Empire. In the
Palaiologan period
, it was held by prominent nobles such as
Alexios Strategopoulos
, but from the 14th century, it was mostly awarded to rulers of the
Balkans
such as the princes of
Vlachia
,
Serbia
and
Thessaly
.
In the late Byzantine hierarchy, as recorded in the mid-14th century
Book of Offices
of
pseudo-Kodinos
, the rank continued to come after the
sebastokrat?r
. Pseudo-Kodinos further records that the
caesar
was equal in precedence to the
panhypersebastos
, another creation of Alexios I, but that Emperor
Michael VIII Palaiologos
(r. 1259?1282) had raised his nephew
Michael Tarchaneiotes
to the rank of
protovestiarios
and decreed that to come after the
caesar
; while under
Andronikos II Palaiologos
(r. 1282?1328) the
megas domestikos
was raised to the same eminence, when it was awarded to the future emperor
John VI Kantakouzenos
(r. 1347?1354).
According to pseudo-Kodinos, the
caesar
'
s insignia under the Palaiologoi was a
skiadion
hat in red and gold, decorated with gold-wire embroideries, with a veil bearing the wearer's name and
pendants
identical to those of the
despot?s
and the
sebastokrat?r
. He wore a red tunic (
rouchon
) similar to the emperor's (without certain decorations), and his shoes and stockings were blue, as were the accouterments of his horse; these were all identical to those of the
sebastokrat?r
, but without the embroidered eagles of the latter. Pseudo-Kodinos writes that the particular forms of another form of hat, the domed
skaranikon
, and of the mantle, the
tamparion
, for the
caesar
were not known.
Ottoman Empire
[
edit
]
"Caesar" is the title officially used by the
Sasanid Persians
to refer to the Roman and Byzantine emperors.
[18]
[19]
In the
Middle East
, the Persians and the Arabs continued to refer to the Roman and Byzantine emperors as "Caesar" (in
Persian
:
???? ???
Qaysar-i Rum
, "Caesar of the Romans", from
Middle Persian
k?sar
). Thus, following the
conquest of Constantinople
in 1453, the victorious
Ottoman sultan
Mehmed II
became the first of the rulers of the
Ottoman Empire
to assume the title (in
Ottoman Turkish
:
???? ???
Kayser-i Rum
).
After the Fall of Constantinople, having conquered the Byzantine Empire, Mehmed took the title
Kayser-i Rum
, claiming succession to the Roman imperium.
[20]
His claim was that, by possession of the city, he was emperor, a new dynast
by conquest
, as had been done previously by the likes of
Heraclius
and
Leo III
.
[21]
Contemporary scholar
George of Trebizond
wrote "the seat of the Roman Empire is Constantinople ... and he who is and remains Emperor of the Romans is also the Emperor of the whole world".
[22]
Gennadius II
, a staunch antagonist of the West because of the
Sack of Constantinople
committed by the Western Catholics and theological controversies between the two Churches, had been enthroned the
Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople-New Rome
with all the ceremonial elements and
ethnarch
(or
milletbashi
) status by the Sultan himself in 1454. In turn, Gennadius II formally recognized Mehmed as successor to the throne.
[23]
Mehmed also had a blood lineage to the Byzantine Imperial family; his predecessor, Sultan
Orhan
had married a Byzantine princess, and Mehmed may have claimed descent from
John Tzelepes Komnenos
.
[24]
Ottoman sultans were not the only rulers to claim such a title, as there was the
Holy Roman Empire
in Western Europe, whose emperor,
Frederick III
, traced his titular lineage from
Charlemagne
who obtained the title of Roman Emperor when he was crowned by
Pope Leo III
in 800, although he was never recognized as such by the Byzantine Empire.
In diplomatic writings between the Ottomans and Austrians, the Ottoman bureaucracy was angered by their use of the Caesar title when the Ottomans saw themself as the true successors of
Rome
. When war broke out and peace negotiations were done, the Austrians (
Holy Roman Empire
) agreed to give up the use of the
Caesar
title according to
Treaty of Constantinople (1533)
(though they would continue to use it and the Roman imperial title until the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806). The Russians, who defined
Moscow
as the
Third Rome
, were similarly sanctioned by the Ottomans, who ordered the
Crimean Khanate
to raid Russia on numerous occasions.
[25]
The Ottomans would lose their political superiority over the Holy Roman Empire with the
Treaty of Zsitvatorok
in 1606, and over the
Russian Empire
with the
Treaty of Kucuk Kaynarca
in 1774, by diplomatically recognising the monarchs of these two countries as equals to the Ottoman Sultan for the first time.
List of holders
[
edit
]
Note:
Caesars
who later became
Augusti
and thus emperors are highlighted in bold.
- Byzantine nobles
- Tervel
,
khan
of the
Bulgars
, named in 705 by
Justinian II
- Nikephoros
&
Christopher
, named on 2 April 769 by their father
Constantine V
[77]
- Alexios Mosele
, likely named in 831 by his father-in-law
Theophilos
- Bardas
, named on 22 April 862 by his nephew
Michael III
- Romanos I Lekapenos
, named on 24 September 920 by the
Byzantine senate
- Bardas Phokas
, named in late 963 by his son
Nikephoros II
- Romanos III Argyros
, named on 9 November 1028 by his father-in-law
Constantine VIII
- Nikephoros Bryennios the Younger
, named by his father-in-law
Alexios I
- John Doukas
, named in 1074 by his brother
Constantine X
- George II of Georgia
, named in 1081 by his brother-in-law
Nikephoros III
- Nikephoros Melissenos
, named in 1080 by Alexios I
- Isaac Komnenos
, named in 1104 by his father Alexios I
- John Rogerios Dalassenos
, named
c.
1130 by his father-in-law
John II
- Renier of Montferrat
, named in 1180 by his father-in-law
Manuel I
- John Kantakouzenos
, named in 1186 by
Isaac II
- Conrad of Montferrat
, named in 1187 by his father-in-law Isaac II
- Manuel Maurozomes
, named
c.
1200 by
Alexios III
- Leo Gabalas
, named by
Theodore I Laskaris
(r. 1205?1221)
- Constantine Palaiologos
, named in 1259 by his brother
Michael VIII
- Alexios Strategopoulos
, named in 1259 by Michael VIII
- Roger de Flor
, leader of the
Catalan Company
, named in 1304 by
Andronikos II
- John Palaiologos
, named in 1326 by his uncle Andronikos II
- Hrelja
, likely named by
John VI Kantakouzenos
(r. 1347?1354)
- Serbian rulers
- Ottoman rulers
- Mehmed II
(r. 1451?1481) assumed title
kayser-i Rum
following the conquest of Constantinople in 1452
- Bayezid II
(r. 1481?1512) is addressed as
kayser
in contemporary sources
[78]
- Suleiman I
(r. 1520?1566) called himself "Caesar of Rome" in the inscription of
Bender, Moldova
, dating from
c.
1538/39
.
[79]
In one of his poems, he also called himself "Roman caesar".
[80]
See also
[
edit
]
Notes
[
edit
]
- ^
Some authors argue that Maximian was never
caesar
given the lack of concrete evidence for this.
- ^
Or, alternatively, December 285.
- ^
Self-proclaimed
augustus
, but only recognized as
caesar
by his fellow tetrarchs.
References
[
edit
]
- ^
Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology
, vol. I, p. 537.
- ^
Smith, William
(1870).
"1. Sex. Julius Caesar"
.
Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology
. Vol. 1.
Little, Brown and Company
. p. 537.
- ^
Syme, Ronald
(1959), "Livy and Augustus",
Harvard Studies in Classical Philology
,
64
: 175, 179,
doi
:
10.2307/310937
,
JSTOR
310937
- ^
Syme, Ronald
(1958),
"Imperator Caesar: A Study in Nomenclature"
,
Historia
, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 175?188,
JSTOR
4434568
- ^
Harriet I. Flower (2006).
The Art of Forgetting: Disgrace & Oblivion in Roman Political Culture
. Univ of North Carolina Press. p. 225.
ISBN
978-0-8078-3063-5
.
- ^
Potter, David S. (2008).
A Companion to the Roman Empire
. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 193?196.
ISBN
978-1-4051-7826-6
.
- ^
a
b
c
McEvoy, Meaghan (2013).
Child Emperor Rule in the Late Roman West, AD 367-455
. OUP. pp. 3?7.
ISBN
978-0-19-966481-8
.
- ^
Kent, John (2018).
Roman Imperial Coinage. Volume X
. Spink Books. p. 50.
ISBN
978-1-912667-37-6
.
- ^
Herrin, Judith (2013).
Unrivalled Influence: Women and Empire in Byzantium
. Princeton University Press. p. 313.
ISBN
978-0-691-15321-6
.
- ^
Choniates, Nicetas (1984).
O City of Byzantium: Annals of Niketas Choniat?s
. Wayne State University Press. p. 412.
ISBN
978-0-8143-1764-8
.
- ^
Middle Persian
:
??????????
kysly (
Inscriptional Pahlavi
), kysl (
Book Pahlavi
), transcribed as
k?sar
- ^
Hurbani?, Martin (2019).
The Avar Siege of Constantinople in 626: History and Legend
. Springer. p. 234.
ISBN
978-3-030-16684-7
.
- ^
Michalis N. Michael; Matthias Kappler; Eftihios Gavriel (2009).
Archivum Ottomanicum
. Mouton. p. 10.
ISBN
978-3447057530
.
- ^
Christine Isom-Verhaaren; Kent F. Schull (11 April 2016).
Living in the Ottoman Realm: Empire and Identity, 13th to 20th Centuries
. Indiana University Press. pp. 38?.
ISBN
978-0-253-01948-6
.
- ^
Crowley, Roger (2009).
Constantinople: The Last Great Siege, 1453
. Faber & Faber. pp. 13?.
ISBN
978-0-571-25079-0
.
- ^
"Gennadios II Scholarios"
.
Encyclopaedia Britannica
. Retrieved
13 July
2020
.
- ^
Norwich, John Julius
(1995).
Byzantium:The Decline and Fall
. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 81?82.
ISBN
0-679-41650-1
.
- ^
Halil, Inancik (2017).
Kırım Hanlı?ı Tarihi Uzerine Ara?tırmalar 1441?1700: Secme Eserleri ? XI
.
ISBN
978-6052952511
.
- ^
Harriet I. Flower (2006).
The Art of Forgetting: Disgrace & Oblivion in Roman Political Culture
. Univ of North Carolina Press. p. 225.
ISBN
978-0-8078-3063-5
.
Piso is called by his new adoptive name of Servius Sulpicius Galba Caesar.
- ^
J. C., O'Neill (1970).
The Theology of Acts in Its Historical Setting
. S.P.C.K. p. 18.
ISBN
978-1028102341
.
- ^
Lindsay, Hugh (2009).
Adoption in the Roman World
. p. 214.
ISBN
978-0521760508
.
The
Historia Augusta
states that Severus considered abdicating in favour of Albinus.
Herodian
and
Dio
, however, say this was merely a trick.
- ^
"Severus Alexander"
.
Livius.org
.
- ^
"Alexander Severus (A.D. 222?235)"
.
De Imperatoribus Romanis
.
- ^
Omissi, Adrastos (2018).
Emperors and Usurpers in the Later Roman Empire
.
Oxford University Press
. p. 76.
ISBN
978-0192558268
.
- ^
Croke, Brian (2004).
"The Imperial Reigns of Leo II"
.
Byzantinische Zeitschrift
.
96
(2): 559?575.
doi
:
10.1515/BYZS.2003.559
.
S2CID
191460505
.
- ^
Victor of Tunnuna
(
c.
570),
Chronica
s.a. 525
.
- ^
Grierson, Philip
(1996).
Catalogue of the Byzantine Coins, Vol. 2
.
Dumbarton Oaks
. pp. 216 & 390.
ISBN
978-0884020240
.
- ^
a
b
Gonis, Nikolaos (2008). "SB VI 8986 and Heraclius' Sons".
Zeitschrift fur Papyrologie und Epigraphik
.
166
: 199?202.
JSTOR
20476531
.
- ^
J. R. Martindale
(2001), "
Nikephoros 5
".
Prosopography of the Byzantine Empire
.
- ^
Casale, Sinem Arcak (2023).
Ottoman-Safavid Cultural Exchange, 1500?1639
. University of Chicago Press. p. 42.
ISBN
978-0-226-82042-2
.
- ^
Dimitri Korobeinikov (2021). "Conquest of a Fortress as a Source of Legitimacy".
Medieval Worlds Comparative & Interdisciplinary Studies
(PDF)
. Vol. 14. Austrian Academy of Sciences Press. pp. 180, 185.
- ^
"Kayser ???? Araplar'ın Roma ve Bizans imparatorları icin kullandıkları unvan."
.
TDV Encyclopedia of Islam
(44+2 vols.)
(in Turkish). Istanbul:
Turkiye Diyanet Foundation
, Centre for Islamic Studies. 1988?2016.
- ^
Kumar, Krishan (2017).
Visions of Empire: How Five Imperial Regimes Shaped the World
. Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 89.
ISBN
978-0691192802
.
Bibliography
[
edit
]
- Barnes, Timothy D.
(1984).
Constantine and Eusebius
. Harvard University Press.
ISBN
0674165314
.
- Bury, J. B.
(1911).
The Imperial Administrative System of the Ninth Century ? With a Revised Text of the Kletorologion of Philotheos
. London: Oxford University Press.
OCLC
1046639111
.
- Greenidge, A. H. J.
(1901).
Roman Public Life
. London:
Macmillan & Co
.
- Hammond, Mason
(1957).
"Imperial Elements in the Formula of the Roman Emperors during the First Two and a Half Centuries of the Empire"
.
Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome
.
25
: 19?64.
doi
:
10.2307/4238646
.
JSTOR
4238646
.
- Jones, A.H.M.
;
J.R. Martindale
&
J. Morris
(1971?1992).
Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire
. Cambridge University Press.
ISBN
0-521-07233-6
.
- Kazhdan, Alexander
, ed. (1991).
The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium
. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.
ISBN
0-19-504652-8
.
- Kienast, Dietmar;
Werner Eck
; Matthaus Heil (2017).
Romische Kaisertabelle: Grundzuge einer romischen Kaiserchronologie
. Darmstadt:
WBG
.
ISBN
978-3-534-26724-8
.
- Peachin, Michael (1990).
Roman Imperial Titulature and Chronology, A.D. 235?284
. Amsterdam: Gieben.
ISBN
90-5063-034-0
.
- Verpeaux, Jean, ed. (1966).
Pseudo-Kodinos, Traite des Offices
(in French). Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique.
Further reading
[
edit
]
|
---|
Gaius Octavius · Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus (
Octavian
) ·
Imperator
Caesar Augustus
|
Titles
| |
---|
Wars of Augustus
| |
---|
Legislative activity
| |
---|
Buildings
|
|
---|
Works
| |
---|
Culture
| |
---|
Family
| Parents and siblings
| |
---|
Wives
| |
---|
Children
| |
---|
|
---|
Circle
| |
---|
Portraits
| |
---|
Legacy
| |
---|
|