For most of its history, the
Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire
did not use
heraldry
in the Western European sense of permanent motifs transmitted through
hereditary
right.
Various large aristocratic families employed certain symbols to identify themselves;
the use of the cross, and of
icons
of
Christ
, the
Theotokos
and various
saints
is also
attested on seals
of officials, but these were often personal rather than family emblems.
[2]
Likewise, various emblems (
Greek
:
σημε?α
,
s?meia
;
sing.
σημε?ον
,
s?meion
) were used in official occasions and for military purposes, such as banners or shields displaying various motifs such as the
cross
or the
labarum
.
[3]
Despite the abundance of pre-heraldic symbols in Byzantine society from the 10th century, only through contact with the
Crusaders
in the 12th century (when heraldry was becoming systematized in Western Europe
[4]
), and particularly following the
Fourth Crusade
(1202?1204) and the establishment of
Frankish principalities
on Byzantine soil from 1204 onwards, did heraldic uses penetrate in Byzantium.
A native Byzantine heraldry began to appear in the middle and lower rungs of aristocratic families in the 14th century, coinciding with the decline of imperial authority and with the fragmentation of political power under the late
Palaiologan emperors
. However, it never achieved the breadth of adoption, or the systematization, of its Western analogues.
Imperial insignia
[
edit
]
Single-headed eagle
[
edit
]
The single-headed Roman
imperial eagle
continued to be used in Byzantium, although far more rarely.
Thus "eagle-bearers" (
?ρνιθ?βορα?
), descendants of the
aquilifers
of the Roman legions, are still attested in the 6th century
military manual
known as the
Strategikon of Maurice
, although it is unknown whether the standards they carried bore any resemblance to the legionary
aquilae
.
Eagle-topped scepters were a frequent feature of
consular diptychs
, and appear on coins until the reign of
Philippikos Bardanes
(
r.
711?713
).
[9]
It continued in use in bas-reliefs in churches and funerary monuments until well into the 11th century, however.
In the last centuries of the Empire it is recorded as being sewn on imperial garments, and shown in
illuminated manuscripts
as decorating the cushions (
suppedia
) on which the emperors stood.
[9]
Double-headed eagle
[
edit
]
The emblem mostly associated with the Byzantine Empire is the
double-headed eagle
. It is not of Byzantine invention, but a traditional
Anatolian
motif dating to
Hittite
times, and the Byzantines themselves only used it in the last centuries of the Empire.
The date of its adoption by the Byzantines has been hotly debated by scholars.
[9]
In 1861, the Greek scholar
Georgios Chrysovergis
wrote that it was adopted by the
Komnenoi
in 1048. Although this was based on no evidence whatsoever, this view gained wide acceptance and circulation.
More careful examination of the primary sources by
Spyridon Lambros
and
August Heisenberg
demonstrated that although as a decorative motif the double-headed eagle begins to appear in
Byzantine art
during the 10th/11th century, it is not securely attested in connection with the emperor until the
chrysobull
of
Andronikos II Palaiologos
in 1301, where he is shown on a
suppedion
decorated with the device.
Lambros suggested that it was adopted from Hittite rock-carvings,
while A. Soloviev argued in favour of a late adoption around 1288, as a talisman against the first
Ottoman
successes in Anatolia, as a symbolic gesture reaffirming Byzantine rule over both European and Asian territories.
The double-headed eagle has been shown to derive from Central Asian traditions, and spread to the eastern Mediterranean with the
Seljuq Turks
.
[17]
In the late 12th and throughout the 13th century, the double-headed eagle was used in northern
Syria
and
Upper Mesopotamia
: the
Artuqid
sultans of
Amida
used it as their emblem, the coins of the
Zengid dynasty
featured it, and
Saladin
and the
Seljuq
sultan
Kayqubad I
likewise used it as a decorative motif in their buildings.
This usage declined sharply after the
Battle of Kose Da?
in 1243, as many Seljuq traditions of pre-Islamic origin were abandoned, including the depiction of animals. The motif continues to appear sporadically as architectural decoration in the 14th century, and in some Ottoman coinage in the 15th century.
[19]
In addition, the double-headed eagle may have been in use in the
Latin Empire
established after the
Fourth Crusade
: according to
Robert of Clari
, the first Latin Emperor,
Baldwin of Flanders
, wore a cloak embroidered with eagles for his coronation; his daughters used the same device in their arms; and the Byzantine historian
Niketas Choniates
reports that the Latin emperors struck bronze coins with a double-headed eagle on them.
The
Palaiologan emperors
used the double-headed eagle as a symbol of the senior members of the imperial family. It was mostly used on clothes and other accoutrements, as codified in the mid-14th century by
pseudo-Kodinos
in his
Book of Offices
. According to Kodinos, the emperor bore special boots (
tzangia
) with eagles made of pearls on both shins and on the instep;
the
Despots
wore similar boots of white and purple, and featured pearl-embroidered eagles on their saddles, while the saddle cloth and their tents were white decorated with red eagles.
Similarly, the
sebastokrator
wore blue boots with golden wire-embroidered eagles on a red background, while his saddle cloth was blue with four red embroidered eagles.
The only occasion the double-headed eagle appears on a flag is on the ship that bore Emperor
John VIII Palaiologos
to the
Council of Florence
, as mentioned by Sphrantzes and confirmed by its depiction in the
Filarete Doors
of
St. Peter's Basilica
.
According to a handful of surviving examples, such as the supposed "Flag of Andronikos II Palaiologos" in the
Vatopedi Monastery
, or a frontispiece of a Bible belonging to
Demetrios Palaiologos
, the Byzantine double-headed eagle was golden on a red background.
Likewise, in Western
armorials
from the 15th century, the golden double-headed eagle on a red shield is given as the arms of the "Empire of the East" or "of Constantinople", or as emblem of members of the imperial family.
The representation of the eagle on a shield is an adaptation to Western heraldic practice, however; the Byzantines never used it in this manner for themselves, although they employed it in a Western context, e.g. in the award of the right to bear the imperial arms to the Florentine citizen Giacomo Paolo di Morellis in 1439.
Western European rulers in Greek lands, like
Esau de' Buondelmonti
and
Carlo I Tocco
, also
impaled
their arms wit the double-headed eagle as a sign of their status when they received the title of despot from the Byzantine emperors.
Within the Byzantine world, the eagle was also used by the semi-autonomous
Despots of the Morea
, who were younger imperial princes, and by the
Gattilusi
of
Lesbos
, who were Palaiologan relatives and vassals.
The double-headed eagle was used in the breakaway
Empire of Trebizond
as well, being attested imperial clothes but also on flags. Indeed, Western
portolans
of the 14th?15th centuries use the double-headed eagle (silver/golden on red/
vermilion
) as the symbol of Trebizond rather than Constantinople. Single-headed eagles are also attested in Trapezuntine coins, and a 1421 source depicts the Trapezuntine flag as yellow with a red single-headed eagle. Apparently, just as in the metropolitan Byzantine state, the use of both motifs, single and double-headed, continued side by side.
[34]
Double-headed eagle reliefs are also attested for the walls of Trebizond, with one example preserved in a church in
Kalamaria
,
Thessaloniki
, which is very similar to 13th-century Seljuq examples.
[35]
Modern scholars commonly consider the double-headed eagle to have been adopted by the Grand Komnenos emperors of Trebizond after their recognition of the suzerainty of, and intermarriage with, the Palaiologos dynasty in the 1280s.
[36]
Likewise, the small Byzantine
Principality of Theodoro
in the
Crimea
, whose rulers conducted marriage alliances with both the Palaiologoi and the Grand Komnenoi, also used the double-headed eagle in the 15th century.
[37]
Other Balkan states followed the Byzantine model as well: chiefly the
Serbians
, but also the
Bulgarians
and
Albania
under George Kastrioti (better known as
Skanderbeg
), while after 1472 the eagle was adopted by
Muscovy
and then
Russia
.
In Western Europe, the
Holy Roman Empire
likewise adopted the double-headed eagle in the mid-13th century, under
Frederick II Hohenstaufen
, and used it side by side with the single-headed version.
Tetragrammatic cross
[
edit
]
During the
Palaiologan period
, the insigne of the reigning dynasty, and the closest thing to a Byzantine "national flag", according to Soloviev, was the so-called "tetragrammatic cross", a gold or silver cross with four letters
beta
"Β" (often interpreted as
firesteels
) of the same color, one in each corner.
As an insigne, the cross was already in frequent use in Byzantium since
Late Antiquity
. Since the 6th century, crosses with quartered letters are known, especially from coinage, forming the acronyms of various invocations, e.g. quartered "X"s for
Σταυρ? Χριστο? χ?ριν χριστιανο?? χ?ριζε
Staure Christou charin christianous charize
("Cross of Christ bestow grace on the Christians") or the
letters ?ΒΡΔ
for
Σταυρ? σου βο?θει Ρωμαν?ν δεσπ?την
Staure sou boithei Romanon despotin
("Thy Cross aid the
Lord Romanos
").
Images of flags with crosses quartered with golden discs survive from the 10th century, and a depiction of a flag almost identical to the Palaiologan design is known from the early 13th century.
The tetragrammatic cross appears with great frequency in the 14th and 15th centuries: it appears on Byzantine coins during the joint rule of
Andronikos II Palaiologos
and his son
Michael IX Palaiologos
, on several Western portolans to designate Constantinople and other Byzantine cities, above one of the windows of the
Palace of the Porphyrogenitus
, and is described by pseudo-Kodinos as "the customary imperial banner" (
basilikon phlamoulon
).
On coins, the "B"s were often accompanied by circles or stars up to the end of the Empire, while Western sources sometimes depict the Byzantine flag as a simple gold cross on red, without the "B"s.
The symbol was also adopted by Byzantine vassals, like the Gattilusi who ruled Lesbos after 1355, or the Latin lords of
Rhodes
Vignolo dei Vignoli
and
Foulques de Villaret
. It was placed on the walls of
Galata
, apparently as a sign of the Byzantine emperor's?largely theoretical?suzerainty over the Genoese colony. Along with the double-headed eagle, the tetragrammatic cross was also adopted as part of their family coat of arms by the cadet line of the Palaiologos dynasty ruling in
Montferrat
.
It was also
adopted in Serbia
, with slight changes.
The interpretation of the emblem's symbolism hinges on the identification of the four devices either as letters or as firesteels, a dispute where even contemporary sources are inconsistent, and which has led to much scholarly debate since the time of the 17th-century scholars
Du Cange
and
Marcus Vulson de la Colombiere
.
Thus a late 15th-century French source explicitly refers to them as letters, but a mid-14th century Sevillan traveller and pseudo-Kodinos both call them firesteels (πυρ?κβολα,
pyrekvola
, in Greek). Nevertheless, as Philip Grierson points out, the use of letters by the Greeks as symbols was a long-established practice, and their identifications as firesteels by Kodinos probably reflects Western influence.
The two traditional readings of the four "B"s,
Βασιλε?? βασιλ?ων βασιλε?ων βασιλε?ουσιν
Basileus basileon basileuon basileuousin
and
Βασιλε?? βασιλ?ων βασιλευ?ντων βασιλε?ει
Basileus basileon basileuonton basileuei
(both meaning "King of Kings ruling over the kings/rulers") were demonstrated by the Greek archaeologist and numismatist
Ioannis Svoronos
to be later interpretations by Marcus Vulson de la Colombiere. Svoronos himself proposed three alternate readings by incorporating the symbol of the cross into the motto:
Σταυρ? βασιλ?ω? βασιλ?ων βασιλε? βο?θει
("Cross of the King of Kings aid the emperor"),
Σταυρ? βασιλ?ω? βασιλ?ων βασιλευο?σ? βο?θει
Staure basileus basileon basileuouse boethei
("Cross of the King of Kings aid the ruling city [Constantinople]"), and
Σταυρ? βασιλ?ω? βασιλ?ων βασιλε?ων βασ?λευε
Staure basileus basileon basileuon basileue
("Cross of the King of Kings, rule in reigning"), while the Greek heraldist G. Tipaldos rejected Svoronos' reading and suggested that they represented a repetition of the motto Σταυρ?, βο?θει
Staure, boethei
("Cross, Come to Our Aid").
-
Cross quartered with golden discs, the rendition based on the historian Babuin
-
Early 14th-century depiction of Constantinople during the
1204 siege
by the
Fourth Crusade
-
Attributed arms of the
Latin Empire
from the reign of
Philip I
, who held the title of Latin Emperor of Constantinople from 1273 to 1283
-
Billon
tornese
coin from the joint reign of
John V Palaiologos
and John VI Kantakouzenos (1347?1353)
-
The tetragrammatic cross emblem of the
Palaiologos dynasty
, from the 15th-century
Harley 6163
manuscript
-
Imperial banner of the
Palaiologos dynasty
, as recorded by pseudo-Kodinos and one of the Byzantine flags depicted in the Castilian
Conoscimiento de todos los reynos
(ca. 1350)
-
Byzantine flag as shown on some
portolan charts
[57]
-
The Byzantine imperial ensign of the 14th century according to
Pietro Vesconte
's portolan chart.
-
The flag of
Salonica
according to Pietro Vesconte's portolan chart.
-
Bronze
denaro
of
Domenico Gattilusio
, lord of
Lesbos
in 1455?1458, with a large "D" on the obverse, and the tetragrammatic cross on the reverse
-
Arms of
Stefan Uro? IV Du?an
Nemanjic
,
King
and later
Emperor
of
Serbia
, who held the title of Emperor of Serbs and Greeks, in the 14th century.
-
Arms of
William IX Palaiologos
, Marquess of Montferrat in 1494?1518
-
-
In modern Greece ahistorical variants of the Byzantine flag are hoisted sometimes in churches.
Personal and family insignia
[
edit
]
Unlike the Western
feudal
lords, Byzantine aristocratic families did not, as far as is known, use specific symbols to designate themselves and their followers.
[a]
Only from the 12th century onwards, when the Empire came in increased contact with Westerners because of the
Crusades
, did heraldry begin to be used among Byzantines. Even then however, the thematology was largely derived from the symbols employed in earlier ages, and its use was limited to the major families of the Empire. Far more common, both in seals and in decorations, was the use of cyphers or monograms (sing. συμπ?λημα,
sympil?ma
), with the letters of the owner's personal or family name arranged around a cross.
Another very Western design could be found on one of the now-demolished towers of the seaward
walls of Constantinople
, which had been restored by
Andronikos II Palaiologos
(r. 1282?1328) and bore that emperor's emblem, a crowned
lion rampant
holding a sword.
The frequent use of the
star and crescent moon
symbol, which appears on coins, military insignia and, perhaps, as a sometime municipal emblem of the imperial city, appears to be connected to the cult of
Hecate
Lampadephoros
("light-bearer") in Hellenistic-era Byzantium.
In AD 330, Constantine the Great used this symbol while re-dedicating Constantinople to the
Virgin Mary
.
[61]
It is known that
Anna Notaras
, daughter of the last
megas doux
of the Byzantine Empire
Loukas Notaras
, after the fall of Constantinople and her emigration to Italy, made a seal with her coat of arms which included two lions facing each other, each holding a sword on the right paw, and a crescent with the left. However, this most likely represents a design that was created after her emigration to Italy.
On the other hand, the adaptation of Byzantine forms to Western uses can be seen with the seal of
Andreas Palaiologos
, which includes the imperial double-headed eagle on an
escutcheon
, a practice never used in Byzantium.
Military flags and insignia
[
edit
]
The
Late Roman army
in the late 3rd century continued to use the insignia usual to the
Roman legions
: the eagle-tipped
aquila
, the square
vexillum
, and the
imago
(the bust of the emperor on a pole). In addition, the use of the
draco
, adopted from the
Dacians
, was widespread among cavalry and
auxiliary
units. Few of them seem to have survived beyond the 4th century, however. The
aquila
fell out of use with the breaking up of the old legions, the
imago
was abandoned with the adoption of
Christianity
, and only the
vexillum
and the
draco
are still occasionally attested in the 5th century and beyond.
Constantine the Great
(r. 306?337) inserted the
Chi-Rho
emblem in Roman military standards, resulting in the so-called
labarum
. In iconographical evidence, this commonly takes the form of the
Chi-Rho
embroidered on the field of a
vexillum
, but literary evidence suggests also its use as a symbol at the head of a staff. The
labarum
, although common in the 4th and 5th centuries, vanishes entirely in the 6th, and reappears only much later in altered form as part of the imperial regalia.
In the late 6th-century
Strat?gikon
attributed to Emperor
Maurice
, two kinds of military flags appear: the triangular pennon or
phlamoulon
(φλ?μουλον, from
Latin
:
flammula
, "little flame"), and the larger
bandon
(β?νδον, from Latin and ultimately
Germanic
bandum
).
The pennons were used for decorative purposes on lances, but the
Strat?gikon
recommends removing them before battle. According to literary evidence, they were single or double-tailed, while later manuscript illuminations evidence triple-tailed
phlamoula
.
The
bandon
was the main Byzantine battle standard from the 6th century on, and came even to give its name to the basic Byzantine army unit (
bandon
or
tagma
).
Its origin and evolution are unknown. It may have resulted from modifications to the
draco
or the
vexillum
, but it appears in its final form in the
Strat?gikon
, composed of a square or rectangular field with streamers attached.
Illuminated chronicles, such as the
Madrid Skylitzes
, often depict flags conforming to the general
bandon
type in various colours and designs, but their accuracy is doubtful.
While they may give a good general idea of how flags looked like, the flags themselves are "simplified and schematised", and the illustrators do not bother to differentiate between the flags shown for the Byzantines and for their enemies; even the
Saracens
are shown as flying a flag topped with a cross.
The historian A. Babuin furthermore notes that the flags shown in the manuscript vary widely in appearance and that no singular pattern can be discerned, apart from a relatively restricted range of colours (red, white, and blue) used either monochromatically or in alternting bands. In addition, the "considerable length of the streamers" shown in the manuscript does not appear in similar sources from areas under direct Byzantine control, but reflects iconography common in southern Italy, where the manuscript was illuminated.
-
Scene of a battle from the 13th-century
Madrid Skylitzes
-
Example of a military banner appearing in the
Madrid Skylitzes
-
Example of a military banner appearing in the
Madrid Skylitzes
-
Example of a military banner appearing in the
Madrid Skylitzes
-
Example of a military banner appearing in the
Madrid Skylitzes
-
Example of a military banner appearing in the
Madrid Skylitzes
-
Example of a military banner appearing in the
Madrid Skylitzes
-
Example of a military banner appearing in the
Madrid Skylitzes
-
Example of a military banner appearing in the
Madrid Skylitzes
-
Historical re-enactors
of Byzantine soldiers, with flags inspired by the
Madrid Skylitzes
According to the
Strat?gikon
, the colours of the standard reflected a unit's hierarchical subordination: the
banda
of the regiments of the same brigade (
moira
,
droungos
) had a field of the same colour, distinguished by a distinctive device, and the regiments of the same division (
meros
or
tourma
) of the army had the same colour on their streamers. Each
moira
and
meros
also had their own flag, as well as the army's commanding general (
strat?gos
). These were on the same pattern but of larger size, and possibly with more streamers (the
Strat?gikon
depicts flags with two to eight streamers). Maurice further recommends that the flag of the centre
meros
, led by the deputy commander (
hypostrat?gos
), should be more conspicuous than those of the other
mer?
, and that the flag of the commanding general (or the emperor, if he was present) should be the most conspicuous of all. In addition, the
Strat?gikon
prescribes a separate standard for the baggage train (
touldon
) of each
moira
. The standards were not only used for distinguishing units, but also as rallying points and for conveying signals to the other formations.
In the
Byzantine navy
, likewise, each ship had its own standard. As with their land counterparts, they were also used to convey signals.
In the 10th century, the cross became a more prominent symbol, and was often used as a
finial
instead of a spear point. Under
Nikephoros II Phokas
(r. 963?969) large crosses of gold and jewels were used as standards, perhaps carried on a pole or otherwise displayed on the flags. In addition, the use of pieces of the
True Cross
is often mentioned in military parades.
In the late Byzantine period, pseudo-Kodinos records the use of the Palaiologan "tetragrammatic cross" (see above) on the imperial ensign (
Greek
:
βασιλικ?ν φλ?μουλον
,
basilikon phlamoulon
) borne by Byzantine naval vessels, while the navy's commander, the
megas doux
, displayed an image of the emperor on horseback.
Ceremonial insignia
[
edit
]
From the 6th century until the end of the empire, the Byzantines also used a number of other insignia. They are mostly recorded in ceremonial processions, most notably in the 10th-century
De Ceremoniis
, but they may have been carried in battle as well. When not used, they were kept in various churches throughout
Constantinople
.
Among them were the imperial
phlamoula
of gold and gold-embroidered silk, and the insignia collectively known as "sceptres" (
σκ?πτρα
,
sk?ptra
), which were usually symbolical objects on top of a staff. A number of them, the so-called "Roman sceptres" (
?ωμα?κ? σκ?πτρα
,
rh?maika sk?ptra
) resembled to old
vexilla
, featuring a hanging cloth (
β?λον
,
v?lon
, from Latin
velum
).
Further insignia of this type included the
eutychia
or
ptychia
(
ε?τυχ?α or πτυχ?α
), which probably bore some representation of
Victory
.
A further group, collectively known as
skeu?
(σκε?η), is mentioned in the
De Ceremoniis
, mostly old military standards handed down through the ages. They were the
laboura
(λ?βουρα), probably a form of the
labarum
; the
kamp?diktouria
(καμπηδικτο?ρια), descendants of the batons of the late Roman drill-masters or
campiductores
; the
signa
(σ?γνα, "insignia"); the
drakontia
(δρακ?ντια) and the
banda
.
The
drakontia
are clearly the descendants of the old Roman
draco
, and the term
draconarius
for a standard bearer survived into the 10th century. It is not certain, however, what the later standards looked like. According to the description of
Niketas Choniates
, they still included the
windsock
that was the
draco
′s distinctive feature, but this may be a deliberate archaicism. At any rate, the use of the
dragon
as an image is attested well into the 14th century.
Pseudo-Kodinos also enumerates various banners and insignia used in imperial processions: one named
archistrat?gos
(
?ρχιστρ?τηγο?
, "chief general"); another with images of renowned prelates and eight streamers known as
oktapodion
(
?κταπ?διον
, "octopus"); another in the form of a cross with the images of
St. Demetrius
,
St. Procopius
,
St. Theodore Tiro
and
St. Theodore Stratelates
; another depicting
St. George
on horseback; another in the shape of a dragon (δρακ?νειον,
drakoneion
); and another with the emperor on horseback.
A pair of each existed, and were carried in processions, while on campaign, one or two copies were taken along, depending on the size of the imperial escort. These were always preceded by the
skouterios
bearing the
dibellion
(διβ?λλιον), the emperor's personal ensign, along with the imperial shield (
skouterion
), and were followed by the banners of the
Despots
and other commanders, with the banners of the
d?marchoi
(the heads of Constantinople's quarters) bringing up the rear.
The
dibellion
'
s nature has been debated, but its name ? most likely a mixed Greek-Latin compound meaning "double
velum
" ? apparently describes a forked
pennon
, evidently of Western European origin.
See also
[
edit
]
Notes
[
edit
]
- ^
For a survey of the evidence available at the time, cf.
Tipaldos 1926
, pp. 206?222.
References
[
edit
]
- ^
ODB
, "Coats of arms" (A. Kazhdan), pp. 472?473.
- ^
ODB
, "Insignia" (A. Kazhdan), pp. 999?1000.
- ^
Crouch 2002
, p. 28. "Current consensus places the beginnings of a systematised and self-conscious use of heraldry by aristocrats in the mid twelfth century."
- ^
a
b
c
ODB
, "Eagles" (A. Cutler), p. 669.
- ^
Androudis 2017
, p. 184.
- ^
Androudis 2017
, pp. 185?186.
- ^
Androudis 2017
, pp. 187?196.
- ^
Androudis 2017
, pp. 179?184.
- ^
Androudis 2017
, pp. 190?192.
- ^
Androudis 2017
, pp. 196?201.
- ^
Guillem Soler's portolan chart of c. 1380
;
Catalan Atlas
of 1375
- ^
Cathedral of Learning (March 4, 2012).
The Turkish Nationality Room Dedication Book
. University of Pittsburgh. p. 3.
Sources
[
edit
]
- Androudis, Pascal (2017).
"Presence de l'aigle bicephale en Trebizonde et dans la principaute grecque de Theodoro en Crimee (XIVe-XVe siecles)"
(PDF)
.
Byzantiaka
(in French).
34
: 179?218.
ISSN
1012-0513
.
- Babuin, A. (2001). "Standards and insignia of Byzantium".
Byzantion: Revue internationale des etudes byzantines
.
71
(1): 5?59.
- Bees, Nikos A. (1912).
"Zum Thema der Darstellung des zweikopfigen Adlers bei den Byzantinern"
.
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