Architectural style
Byzantine architecture
|
Years active
| 4th century ? 1453
|
---|
Byzantine architecture
is the
architecture
of the
Byzantine Empire
, or Eastern Roman Empire, usually dated from 330 AD, when
Constantine the Great
established a new Roman capital in
Byzantium
, which became
Constantinople
, until the
fall of the Byzantine Empire
in 1453. There was initially no hard line between the Byzantine and Roman Empires, and early Byzantine architecture is stylistically and structurally indistinguishable from late
Roman architecture
. The style continued to be based on arches, vaults and domes, often on a large scale. Wall
mosaics
with
gold backgrounds
became standard for the grandest buildings, with
frescos
a cheaper alternative.
The richest interiors were finished with thin plates of
marble
or coloured and patterned stone. Some of the columns were also made of marble. Other widely used materials were bricks and stone.
[1]
Mosaics made of stone or glass
tesserae
were also elements of interior architecture. Precious wood furniture, like beds, chairs, stools, tables, bookshelves and silver or golden cups with beautiful reliefs, decorated Byzantine interiors.
[2]
Early Byzantine architecture drew upon earlier elements of Roman and Greek architecture.
Stylistic drift
,
technological advancement
, and
political
and territorial changes meant that a distinct style gradually resulted in the
Greek cross
plan in
church architecture
.
[3]
Civil architecture continued
Greco-Roman
trends; the Byzantines built impressive fortifications and bridges, but generally not
aqueducts
on the same scales as the Romans.
This terminology was introduced by modern historians to designate the medieval
Roman Empire
as it evolved as a distinct artistic and cultural entity centered on the new capital of Constantinople (modern-day
Istanbul
) rather than the city of
Rome
and its environs. Its architecture dramatically influenced the later
medieval architecture
throughout Europe and the Near East.
Characteristics
[
edit
]
When the
Roman Empire
became Christian (after having extended eastwards) with its new capital at
Constantinople
, its architecture became more sensuous and ambitious. This new style with exotic domes and richer mosaics would come to be known as "Byzantine" before it traveled west to
Ravenna
and
Venice
and as far north as
Moscow
. Most of the churches and basilicas have high-riding domes, which created vast open spaces at the centers of churches, thereby heightening the light. The round arch is a fundamental of Byzantine style. Magnificent golden mosaics with their graphic simplicity brought light and warmth into the heart of churches. Byzantine capitals break away from the Classical conventions of
ancient Greece
and
Rome
with sinuous lines and naturalistic forms, which are precursors to the
Gothic style
.
In the same way the
Parthenon
is the most impressive monument for
Classical religion
,
Hagia Sophia
remained the iconic church for
Christianity
. The temples of these two religions differ substantially from the point of view of their interiors and exteriors. For Classical temples, only the exterior was important, because only the priests entered the interior, where the statue of the deity to whom the temple was dedicated was kept. The ceremonies were held outside, in front of the temple. Instead, Christian liturgies were held inside the churches.
[4]
Columns
[
edit
]
Byzantine columns are quite varied, mostly developing from the classical
Corinthian
, with the ornamentation undercut with drills, and
fluted shafts
almost entirely abandoned. The block of stone was left rough as it came from the quarry, and the sculptor evolved new designs to his own fancy, so that one rarely meets with many repetitions of the same design. One of the most remarkable designs features leaves carved as if blown by the wind; the finest example being at the 7th-century
Hagia Sophia (Thessaloniki)
. Those in the
Cathedral of Saint Mark, Venice
(1071) specially attracted
John Ruskin
's fancy. Others appear in
Sant'Apollinare in Classe
,
Ravenna
(549).
The column in
San Vitale, Ravenna
(547) shows above it the
dosseret
required to carry the
arch
, the springing of which was much wider than the abacus of the column. On eastern columns the eagle, the lion and the lamb are occasionally carved, but treated conventionally.
There are two types of columns used at
Hagia Sophia
: Composite and Ionic. The Composite column that emerged during the Late
Byzantine Empire
, mainly in Rome, combines the Corinthian with the
Ionic
.
Composite columns
line the principal space of the nave. Ionic columns are used behind them in the side spaces, in a mirror position relative to the Corinthian or Composite orders (as was their fate well into the 19th century, when buildings were designed for the first time with a monumental Ionic order). At Hagia Sophia, though, these are not the standard imperial statements. The columns are filled with foliage in all sorts of variations. In some, the small, lush leaves appear to be caught up in the spinning of the scrolls ? clearly, a different, nonclassical sensibility has taken over the design.
The columns at Basilica of San Vitale show wavy and delicate floral patterns similar to decorations found on belt buckles and dagger blades. Their inverted pyramidal form has the look of a basket.
Overview of extant monuments
[
edit
]
Buildings increased in geometric
complexity
,
brick
and plaster were used in addition to
stone
in the decoration of important public structures,
classical orders
were used more freely,
mosaics
replaced carved decoration, complex
domes
rested upon massive
piers
, and windows filtered light through thin sheets of
alabaster
to softly illuminate interiors. Most of the surviving structures are sacred, with secular buildings having been destroyed.
Early architecture
[
edit
]
Prime examples of early Byzantine architecture date from the Emperor
Justinian I
's reign and survive in
Ravenna
and Istanbul, as well as in
Sofia
(the
Church of St Sophia
).
One of the great breakthroughs in the history of Western architecture occurred when Justinian's architects invented a complex system providing for a smooth transition from a square plan of the church to a circular dome (or domes) by means of
pendentives
.
In Ravenna, the longitudinal
basilica
of
Sant'Apollinare Nuovo
, and the octagonal, centralized structure of the church of
San Vitale
, commissioned by Emperor Justinian but never seen by him, was built. Justinian's monuments in Istanbul include the domed churches of
Hagia Sophia
and
Hagia Irene
(both discussed in more detail below), but there is also an earlier, smaller church of Saints Sergius and Bacchus (locally referred to as "
Little Hagia Sophia
"), which might have served as a model for both in that it combined the elements of a longitudinal basilica with those of a centralized building.
Other structures include the ruins of the
Great Palace of Constantinople
, the innovative
walls of Constantinople
(with 192 towers) and
Basilica Cistern
(with hundreds of recycled classical columns). A mosaic in the church begun
by the Ostrogoths
, San Apollinare in Nuovo in Ravenna, depicts an early Byzantine palace.
Hagios Demetrios
in
Thessaloniki
,
Saint Catherine's Monastery
on
Mount Sinai
,
Jvari Monastery
in present-day
Georgia
, and three
Armenian
churches of
Echmiadzin
all date primarily from the 7th century and provide a glimpse on architectural developments in the Byzantine provinces following the age of Justinian.
Remarkable engineering feats include the 430 m long
Sangarius Bridge
, the pointed arch of
Karamagara Bridge
, as well as the dome of the Church of
Hagia Sophia
.
Middle Byzantine Architecture
[
edit
]
In the
Macedonian dynasty
, it is presumed that
Basil I
's votive church of the
Theotokos of the Pharos
and the
Nea Ekklesia
(both no longer existent) served as a model for most
cross-in-square
sanctuaries of the period, including the
Cattolica di Stilo
in southern Italy (9th century), the monastery church of
Hosios Lukas
in Greece (c. 1000),
Nea Moni of Chios
(a pet project of
Constantine IX
), and the
Daphni Monastery
near
Athens
(c. 1050). All three of the later churches display the important shifts in architectural design that occurred following the end of Iconoclasm, when architectural design and decoration became more standardized.
[5]
The
Hagia Sophia church
in
Ochrid
(present-day
North Macedonia
), built in the
First Bulgarian Empire
in the time of
Boris I of Bulgaria
, and
eponymous cathedral
in
Kiev
(present-day
Ukraine
) testify to a vogue for multiple subsidiary domes set on drums, which would gain in height and narrowness with the progress of time.
[
citation needed
]
Comnenian and Paleologan periods
[
edit
]
In Istanbul and
Asia Minor
the architecture of the
Komnenian period
is almost non-existent, with the notable exceptions of the Elmali Kilise and other rock sanctuaries of
Cappadocia
, and of the Churches of the
Pantokrator
and of the
Theotokos Kyriotissa
in Istanbul. Most examples of this architectural style and many of the other older Byzantine styles only survive on the outskirts of the Byzantine world, as most significant and ancient churches and buildings were in Asia Minor. During
World War I
, almost all churches that ended up within the Turkish borders were destroyed or converted into mosques. Some were abandoned as a result of the
Greek and Christian genocides
from 1915 to 1923. Similar styles can be found in countries such as
Bulgaria
,
Croatia
,
North Macedonia
,
Russia
,
Serbia
and other Slavic lands, as well as in
Sicily
(
Cappella Palatina
) and
Veneto
(
St Mark's Basilica
,
Torcello Cathedral
).
In Middle Byzantine architecture "cloisonne masonry" refers to walls built with a regular mix of stone and
brick
, often with more of the latter. The exterior of the 11th- or 12th-century
Pammakaristos Church
in
Istanbul
is an example, though it is even more renowned for Late Byzantine additions discussed below.
Late Byzantine Architecture
[
edit
]
The
Paleologan
period is well represented in a dozen former churches in Istanbul, notably
St Saviour at Chora
and
St Mary Pammakaristos
. Unlike their Slavic counterparts, the Paleologan architects never accented the vertical thrust of structures. As a result, the late medieval architecture of Byzantium (barring the
Hagia Sophia
of
Trebizond
) is less prominent in height.
The
Church of the Holy Apostles (Thessaloniki)
is cited as an archetypal structure of the late period with its exterior walls intricately decorated with complex brickwork patterns or with glazed ceramics. Other churches from the years immediately predating the fall of Constantinople survive on
Mount Athos
and in
Mistra
(e.g.
Brontochion Monastery
). That site also has preserved secular architecture such as the Palace of the Despots and several houses.
In the late Byzantine period, c. 1310, a highly ornate
parekklesion
was added to the
Pammakaristos Church
in Constantinople for the tomb of Michael Glabas Tarchaniotes, a Byzantine aristocrat and general who lived c. 1235 to c. 1305?08.
[6]
It displays the attenuated proportions favored in the late Byzantine era, as well as shifts in style in the mosaics' treatment of figures.
Structural evolution
[
edit
]
As early as the building of
Constantine's
churches in
Palestine
there were two chief types of plan in use: the
basilican
, or axial, type, represented by the basilica at the
Holy Sepulchre
, and the circular, or central, type, represented by
the great octagonal church
once at
Antioch
.
Those of the latter type we must suppose were nearly always
vaulted
, for a central
dome
would seem to furnish their very purpose. The central space was sometimes surrounded by a very thick wall, in which deep recesses, to the interior, were formed, as at
Church of St. George, Sofia
, built by the
Romans
in the 4th century as a cylindrical domed structure built on a square base, and the noble
Church of Saint George
,
Thessaloniki
(5th century), or by a vaulted aisle, as at
Santa Costanza
,
Rome
(4th century); or annexes were thrown out from the central space in such a way as to form a cross, in which these additions helped to counterpoise the central vault, as at the
Mausoleum of Galla Placidia
,
Ravenna
(5th century). The most famous church of this type was that of the
Holy Apostles, Constantinople
. Vaults appear to have been early applied to the basilican type of plan; for instance, at
Hagia Irene
,
Constantinople
(6th century), the long body of the church is covered by two domes.
At
Saint Sergius
, Constantinople, and San Vitale, Ravenna, churches of the central type, the space under the dome was enlarged by having apsidal additions made to the octagon. Finally, at
Hagia Sophia
(6th century) a combination was made which is perhaps the most remarkable piece of planning ever contrived. A central space of 100 ft (30 m) square is increased to 200 ft (60 m) in length by adding two
hemicycles
to it to the east and the west; these are again extended by pushing out three minor apses eastward, and two others, one on either side of a straight extension, to the west. This unbroken area, about 260 ft (80 m) long, the larger part of which is over 100 ft (30 m) wide, is entirely covered by a system of domical surfaces. Above the
conchs
of the small
apses
rise the two great
semi-domes
which cover the hemicycles, and between these bursts out the vast dome over the central square. On the two sides, to the north and south of the dome, it is supported by vaulted aisles in two stories which bring the exterior form to a general square.
At the Holy Apostles (6th century) five domes were applied to a cruciform plan; the central dome was the highest. After the 6th century there were no churches built which in any way competed in scale with these great works of Justinian, and the plans more or less tended to approximate to one type. The central area covered by the dome was included in a considerably larger square, of which the four divisions, to the east, west, north and south, were carried up higher in the vaulting and roof system than the four corners, forming in this way a sort of
nave
and
transepts
. Sometimes the central space was square, sometimes octagonal, or at least there were eight piers supporting the dome instead of four, and the nave and transepts were narrower in proportion.
If we draw a square and divide each side into three so that the middle parts are greater than the others, and then divide the area into nine from these points, we approximate to the typical setting out of a plan of this time. Now add three apses on the east side opening from the three divisions, and opposite to the west put a narrow entrance porch running right across the front. Still in front put a square court. The court is the
atrium
and usually has a
fountain
in the middle under a
canopy
resting on pillars. The entrance porch is the
narthex
. Directly under the center of the dome is the
ambo
, from which the Scriptures were proclaimed, and beneath the ambo at floor level was the place for the choir of singers. Across the eastern side of the central square was a screen which divided off the
bema
, where the altar was situated, from the body of the church; this screen, bearing images, is the
iconostasis
. The
altar
was protected by a canopy or
ciborium
resting on pillars. Rows of rising seats around the curve of the apse with the
patriarch
's throne at the middle eastern point formed the synthronon. The two smaller compartments and apses at the sides of the bema were sacristies, the
diaconicon
and
prothesis
. The ambo and bema were connected by the
solea
, a raised walkway enclosed by a railing or low wall.
The continuous influence from the East is widely shown in the fashion of decorating external
brick
walls of churches built about the 12th century, in which bricks roughly carved into form are set up so as to make bands of ornamentation which it is quite clear are imitated from Cufic writing. This fashion was associated with the disposition of the exterior brick and stone work generally into many varieties of pattern, zig-zags, key-patterns etc.; and, as similar decoration is found in many Persian buildings, it is probable that this custom also was derived from the East. The domes and vaults to the exterior were covered with
lead
or with tiling of regional variety. The window and door frames were of
marble
. The interior surfaces were adorned all over by
mosaics
or
frescoes
in the higher parts of the edifice, and below with incrustations of marble slabs, which were frequently of very beautiful varieties, and disposed so that, although in one surface, the coloring formed a series of large panels. The better marbles were
opened out
so that the two surfaces produced by the division formed a symmetrical pattern.
Legacy
[
edit
]
In the West
[
edit
]
Ultimately, Byzantine architecture in the West gave way to
Carolingian
,
Romanesque
, and
Gothic architecture
. But a great part of current Italy used to belong to the Byzantine Empire before that. Great examples of Byzantine architecture are still visible in Ravenna (for example Basilica di
San Vitale
which architecture influenced the
Palatine Chapel
of Charlemagne).
In the East
[
edit
]
As for the East, Byzantine architectural tradition exerted a profound influence on early
Islamic architecture
, particularly
Umayyad architecture
. During the
Umayyad Caliphate
era (661-750), as far as the Byzantine impact on early Islamic architecture is concerned, the Byzantine arts formed a fundamental source to the new Muslim artistic heritage, especially in Syria. There are considerable Byzantine influences which can be detected in the distinctive early Islamic monuments in Syria (709?715). While these give clear reference in plan - and somewhat in decoration - to Byzantine art, the plan of the Umayyad Mosque has also a remarkable similarity with 6th- and 7th-century Christian basilicas, but it has been modified and expanded on the transversal axis and not on the normal longitudinal axis as in the Christian basilicas. The tile work, geometric patterns, multiple arches, domes, and polychrome brick and stone work that characterize Muslim and
Moorish architecture
were influenced heavily by Byzantine architecture.
Post-Byzantine architecture in Eastern Orthodox countries
[
edit
]
In
Bulgaria
,
North Macedonia
,
Serbia
,
Romania
,
Belarus
,
Georgia
,
Armenia
,
Ukraine
,
Russia
and other Orthodox countries the Byzantine architecture persisted even longer, from the 16th up to the 18th centuries, giving birth to local post-Byzantine schools of architecture.
Neo-Byzantine architecture
[
edit
]
Neo-Byzantine architecture
was followed in the wake of the 19th-century
Gothic revival
, resulting in such jewels as
Westminster Cathedral
in
London
, and in
Bristol
from about 1850 to 1880 a related style known as
Bristol Byzantine
was popular for industrial buildings which combined elements of the Byzantine style with Moorish architecture. It was developed on a wide-scale basis in
Russia
during the reign of
Alexander II
by
Grigory Gagarin
and his followers who designed
St Volodymyr's Cathedral
in Kiev,
St Nicholas Naval Cathedral
in
Kronstadt
,
Alexander Nevsky Cathedral in Sofia
,
Saint Mark's church
in
Belgrade
and the
New Athos Monastery
in
New Athos
near
Sukhumi
. The largest Neo-Byzantine project of the 20th century was the
Church of Saint Sava
in
Belgrade
.
Important Byzantine monuments
[
edit
]
Hagia Irene
[
edit
]
One of the less famous Byzantine churches is
Hagia Irene
. This church served as a model church for the more famous church, Hagia Sophia. Construction on the church began in the 4th century. This was the first church that was built in Constantinople, but due to its location, it was severely damaged by earthquakes and the Nika riots, and required repair several times. The Hagia Irene is defined by its large atrium, and is in fact the only surviving building of the
Byzantine Empire
to have such a feature.
[8]
Construction
[
edit
]
Hagia Irene is composed mainly of three materials: stone, brick, and
mortar
. Bricks 70 cm x 35 cm x 5 cm were used, and these bricks were glued together using mortar approximately 5 cm thick. The
building materials
chosen for the construction of the church had to be lightweight, durable, and strong. Volcanic materials were chosen for this purpose, as volcanic concrete is very light and durable. Perhaps the most definite feature of the Hagia Irene is the strict contrast between the interior and exterior design. While the plain outside composed of stone and brick favors functionality, the interior is decorated in elaborate mosaics, decorative marble, and, in some places, covered in plaster. Another important characteristic of the church include two domes that follow one behind another, the first being a lower oval, and the second being a higher semi-circle.
[8]
History of Hagia Irene
[
edit
]
Throughout history Hagia Irene has undergone several changes. There were multiple repairs due to the Nika riots and earthquakes. When the Ottomans took over Hagia Irene they repurposed it and made a few changes, but none as drastic as what was done to Hagia Sophia.
[8]
Today, Hagia Irene is still standing and open to visitors as a museum. It is open everyday, except for Tuesdays.
Construction of Hagia Irene
Timeline
[8]
Time
|
Event
|
4th C.
|
Construction began
|
532
|
Church was burned during Nika riots
|
548
|
Emperor Justinian
repaired the church
|
740
|
Significant damages from earthquakes
|
1453
|
Constantinople was conquered by the Ottomans - became a weapons storehouse
|
1700
|
Became a museum
|
1908-1978
|
Served as a military museum.
|
Hagia Sophia
[
edit
]
The most famous example of Byzantine architecture is the
Hagia Sophia
, and it has been described as "holding a unique position in the
Christian world
",
[9]
and as an architectural and
cultural icon
of
Byzantine
and
Eastern Orthodox civilization
.
[10]
[11]
[9]
The Hagia Sophia held the title of largest church in the world until the Ottoman Empire sieged the Byzantine capital. After the fall of Constantinople, the church was used by the Muslims for their religious services until 1931, when it was reopened as a museum in 1935. Translated from
Greek
, the name Hagia Sophia means "Holy Wisdom".
[12]
Construction of Hagia Sophia
[
edit
]
The construction is a combination of longitudinal and central structures. This church was a part of a larger complex of buildings created by Emperor
Justinian
. This style influenced the construction of several other buildings, such as
St. Peter's Basilica
. Hagia Sophia should have been built to withstand earthquakes, but since the construction of Hagia Sophia was rushed this technology was not implemented in the design, which is why the building has had to be repaired so many times due to damages from the earthquakes. The dome is the key feature of Hagia Sophia as the domed basilica is representative of Byzantine architecture. Both of the domes collapsed at different times throughout history due to earthquakes and had to be rebuilt.
[13]
History of Hagia Sophia
[
edit
]
The original construction of Hagia Sophia was possibly ordered by Constantine, but ultimately carried out by his son Constantius II in 360. Constantine's building of churches, specifically the Hagia Sophia, was considered an incredibly significant component in his shift of the centralization of power from Rome in the west to Constantinople in the east, and was considered the high-point of religious and political celebration. The construction of the final version of the Hagia Sophia, which still stands today, was overseen by Emperor Justinian. Between the rule of these two Emperors, Hagia Sophia was destroyed and rebuilt twice. Following its reconstruction, Hagia Sophia was considered the center of Orthodox Christianity for 900 years, until the fall of Constantinople to the
Ottomans
.
[14]
Timeline
Time
|
Event
|
360
|
Construction began
|
404
|
Hagia Sophia was burned down in public riot.
|
415
|
Construction begins on the next version of Hagia Sophia.
|
532
|
The church is once again demolished during Nika riots.
|
537
|
The final version of Hagia Sophia opens to Christian worship after five more years of construction.
|
558
|
Earthquake - dome collapsed
|
859
|
Fire damage
|
869
|
Earthquake damage
|
989
|
More earthquake damage
|
1317
|
Large buttresses added
|
1453
|
Constantinople fell to the Ottomans - converted into a mosque
|
1935
|
Hagia Sophia is converted into a museum by secularists
|
2020
|
Reverted to a mosque
|
Gallery
[
edit
]
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
Dimitriu Hurmuziadis, Lucia (1979).
Cultura Greciei
(in Romanian). Editura ?tiin?ific? ?i encyclopedic?. p. 93.
- ^
Graur, Neaga (1970).
Stiluri in arta decorativ?
(in Romanian). Cerces. p. 38.
- ^
"Byzantine architecture"
.
- ^
Dimitriu Hurmuziadis, Lucia (1979).
Cultura Greciei
(in Romanian). Editura ?tiin?ific? ?i enciclopedic?. p. 92.
- ^
Ousterhout, Robert (2021). "Middle Byzantine Church Architecture". In Freeman, Evan (ed.).
Smarthistory Guide to Byzantine Art
. Smarthistory.
{{
cite book
}}
: CS1 maint: date and year (
link
)
- ^
Ousterhout, Robert (2021). "Late Byzantine Church Architecture". In Freeman, Evan (ed.).
Smarthistory Guide to Byzantine Art
.
- ^
Godlewski, Włodzimierz (2013).
Dongola-ancient Tungul. Archaeological guide
(PDF)
. Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology, University of Warsaw. p. 12.
ISBN
978-83-903796-6-1
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
Musilek, Josef; Podolka, Lubo?; Karkova, Monika (2016-01-01).
"The Unique Construction of the Church of Hagia Irene in Istanbul for The Teaching of Byzantine Architecture"
.
Procedia Engineering
.
161
: 1745?1750.
doi
:
10.1016/j.proeng.2016.08.770
.
ISSN
1877-7058
.
- ^
a
b
Heinle & Schlaich 1996
- ^
Cameron 2009
.
- ^
Meyendorff 1982
.
- ^
Bordewich, Fergus M.
"A Monumental Struggle to Preserve Hagia Sophia"
.
Smithsonian
. Retrieved
2018-11-22
.
- ^
Plachy, Jan; Musilek, Josef; Podolka, Lubo?; Karkova, Monika (2016-01-01).
"Disorders of the Building and its Remediation - Hagia Sophia, Turkey the Most the Byzantine Building"
.
Procedia Engineering
.
161
: 2259?2264.
doi
:
10.1016/j.proeng.2016.08.825
.
ISSN
1877-7058
.
- ^
Cohen, Andrew (2011).
Architecture in Religion: The History of the Hagia Sophia and Proposals For Returning It To Worship
(MA thesis). Florida International University. pp. 2?3.
doi
:
10.25148/etd.FI14060867
.
Works cited
[
edit
]
-
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the
public domain
:
Chisholm, Hugh
, ed. (1911). "
Byzantine Art
".
Encyclopædia Britannica
(11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
- Cameron, Averil (2009).
Οι Βυζαντινο?
(in Greek). Athens: Psychogios.
ISBN
978-960-453-529-3
.
- Heinle, Erwin; Schlaich, Jorg (1996),
Kuppeln aller Zeiten, aller Kulturen
, Stuttgart,
ISBN
3-421-03062-6
{{
citation
}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
link
)
- Meyendorff, John
(1982).
The Byzantine Legacy in the Orthodox Church
. Yonkers: St Vladimir's Seminary Press.
ISBN
978-0-913836-90-3
.
Further reading
[
edit
]
- Bogdanovic, Jelena.
"The Framing of Sacred Space: The Canopy and the Byzantine Church"
, New York: Oxford University Press, 2017.
ISBN
0190465182
.
- ?ur?i?, Slobodan (1979).
Gra?anica: King Milutin's Church and Its Place in Late Byzantine Architecture
. Pennsylvania State University Press.
ISBN
9780271002187
.
- Fletcher, Banister
; Cruickshank, Dan,
Sir Banister Fletcher's a History of Architecture
, Architectural Press, 20th edition, 1996 (first published 1896).
ISBN
0-7506-2267-9
. Cf. Part Two, Chapter 11.
- Mango, Cyril,
Byzantine Architecture
(London, 1985; Electa, Rizzoli).
- Ousterhout, Robert;
Master Builders of Byzantium
, Princeton University Press, 1999.
ISBN
0-691-00535-4
.
External links
[
edit
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BCE
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1st millennium
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1000?1500
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1500?1750
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1750?1900
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1900?1950
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1950?2000
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2000?present
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Regional
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Preceding
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Early
(330–717)
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Middle
(717–1204)
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Late
(1204–1453)
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By modern region
or territory
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