Period of Byzantine history from 717 to 802
The
Byzantine Empire
was ruled by the
Isaurian dynasty
(or Syrian dynasty) from 717 to 802. The Isaurian
emperors
were successful in defending and consolidating the empire against the
caliphates
after the onslaught of the
early Muslim conquests
, but were less successful in Europe, where they suffered setbacks against the
Bulgars
, had to give up the
Exarchate of Ravenna
, and lost influence over Italy and the
papacy
to the growing power of the
Franks
.
The Isaurian dynasty is chiefly associated with
Byzantine iconoclasm
, an attempt to restore divine favour by purifying the Christian faith from excessive adoration of
icons
, which resulted in considerable internal turmoil.
By the end of the Isaurian dynasty in 802, the Byzantines were continuing to fight the Arabs and the Bulgars for their very existence, with matters made more complicated when
Pope Leo III
crowned
Charlemagne
as
emperor of the Romans
, which was seen as an attempt at making the
Carolingian state
the successor to the
Roman Empire
.
Background: Byzantium in the 7th century
[
edit
]
The
Heraclian dynasty
(610?695 and 705?711) faced heavy challenges. After successfully
overcoming
the
Sassanid Persians
, the Emperor
Heraclius
(r. 610?641) and his exhausted realm were faced with the sudden onset of the
Muslim expansion
from
Arabia
into the
Levant
.
[1]
Following the
Muslim conquest of Syria
, the rich province of
Egypt
, the Empire's chief source of grain and tax revenue, had fallen to the Arabs. The Byzantines also faced Arab attacks through Libya against the
Exarchate of Africa
, against
Cilicia
, which controlled the southern passes into
Asia Minor
, now the Empire's last major contiguous territory, and against the
Armenian Highland
, the Empire's chief source of manpower and a vital buffer between the now Arab-dominated
Syrian Desert
region and the northeastern passage into Asia Minor. These three areas would be the main fields of Byzantine-Arab contention during the next half-century.
[2]
The Arabs continued to make headway, most notably constructing a navy that successfully challenged Byzantine supremacy in the Mediterranean. The outbreak of the
Muslim civil war
in 656 bought the Byzantines time, and emperor
Constans II
(r. 641?668) reinforced his position in the
Balkans
and Italy. His successor,
Constantine IV
(r. 668?685), was able to beat off the
First Arab Siege of Constantinople
(674?678), and in its aftermath move into the counteroffensive, securing Asia Minor, recovering
Cilicia
and forcing the Caliphate to pay tribute. At the same time however, he was defeated by the
Bulgar
khan
Asparukh
, and was forced to accept his people's settlement in Byzantine lands south of the
Danube
.
[3]
With the first deposition of Constantine IV's son and heir
Justinian II
in 695 began a
period of troubles
that lasted almost a quarter-century and brought a succession of disasters that nearly brought about the downfall of the Byzantine state. Carthage finally fell in 697 and a Byzantine recovery attempt
defeated
next year. Cilicia was conquered by the Arabs and turned into a base for raiding expeditions that penetrated deep into Asia Minor, sacking its forts and cities, while the Caucasus brought under firm Muslim control. Finally, the
Umayyad
caliph
Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik
(r. 715?717) began preparing another huge expedition to conquer Constantinople.
[4]
[5]
At the same time, the disasters of the 7th century saw major changes in the society and nature of what remained of the Empire: the urbanized, cosmopolitan civilization of
Late Antiquity
came to an end, and the
Medieval era
began. With the decline of most cities to a small, fortified urban cores that functioned merely as administrative centres, society became largely agrarian, while education and intellectual life almost vanished. The loss of the Empire's richest provinces, coupled with successive invasions, reduced the imperial economy to a relatively impoverished state, compared to the resources available to the
Caliphate
. The monetary economy persisted, but the
barter economy
experienced a revival as well.
[6]
[7]
Administrative practice also changed: alongside the continued existence of the late Roman provincial system, the surviving field armies were reorganised into the
theme system
as a means to preserve the remaining imperial territory, although the extensive power concentrated in the hands of the thematic commanders, the
strategoi
, made them prone to rebel. At the same time, the central bureaucracy in Constantinople also rose in importance.
[8]
[9]
In the religious field, the loss of the
Monophysite
eastern provinces ended the need for the unsuccessful compromise doctrine of
Monotheletism
, which was abandoned at the
Third Council of Constantinople
in 680,
[10]
while the
Quinisext Council
in 692 saw the promotion of the interests and views of the
Patriarchate of Constantinople
against the
See of Rome
.
[11]
The Empire in crisis, 705?717
[
edit
]
After
Justinian II
's second overthrow, the Byzantine Empire spiralled into another era of chaos matched only by
Phocas
' mishandling of the last Persian War.
Philippikos Bardanes
, the Crimean rebel who seized the throne proved to be totally incompetent for rule. Rather than face the looming threat of the Bulgars or the Arabs, he intended to reignite the religious controversies by imposing the much hated Heraclian
Monothelitism
. When King
Tervel of Bulgaria
(who was an ally of Justinian II) invaded Thrace, Bardanes had no choice but to summon the troops of the
Opsician Theme
to combat the Bulgars. Unfortunately for the Emperor, the troops had no loyalty whatsoever to him and after the
ritual blinding
he was replaced in June 713 by the chief secretary of the Emperor, Artemios.
Artemios was crowned as
Anastasios II
. Anastasios gave the Empire a brief taste of good leadership, improving the
walls of the capital
and filling the granaries of the capital to bursting point, in order that the newly reported Arab invasion be dealt with. Every citizen was told to gather enough food for three years for if the Arabs were to reach the straits it would undoubtedly be a lengthy siege. However, Anastasios proved too good for the Empire; in an effort to avert the Arab siege of the Capital, Anastasios planned a preemptive strike against the invaders, using
Rhodes
as a base. However the Opsician Theme once more revolted and Anastasios found himself in a
Thessalonika
monastery by 715.
The Opsicians chose
Theodosios
, an unwilling tax-collector, to rule the Empire. The choice was hardly based upon his skills; when Leo the Isaurian,
strategos
of the
Anatolic theme
, asked the
Senate
and the Patriarch for his support in becoming emperor, it took little persuading to obtain it.
Leo III the Isaurian, 717?741
[
edit
]
Leo III
, who would become the founder of the so-called Isaurian dynasty, was actually born in
Germanikeia
in northern
Syria
c. 685; his alleged origin from
Isauria
derives from a reference in
Theophanes the Confessor
, which however may be a later addition. After being raised to
spatharios
by Justinian II, he fought the Arabs in
Abasgia
, and was appointed as
strategos
of the Anatolics by Anastasios II.
[12]
Following the latter's fall, in 716 Leo allied himself with
Artabasdos
, the general of the
Armeniacs
, and was proclaimed emperor while two Arab armies, one under the Caliph's brother
Maslamah ibn Abd al-Malik
, campaigned in Asia Minor. Leo averted an attack by Maslamah by clever negotiations, in which he promised to recognize the Caliph's suzerainty, but on 25 March 717, he entered Constantinople and deposed Theodosios.
[13]
[14]
[15]
Arab siege of Constantinople and its aftermath
[
edit
]
Within months, the new Emperor faced his first great challenge, with a
massive Muslim attack
on the imperial capital: the Caliphate's army and navy, led by Maslamah, numbered some 120,000 men and 1,800 ships according to the sources. Whatever the real number, it was a huge force, far larger than the Imperial army. Thankfully for Leo and the Empire, Anastasios II had repaired and strengthened the capital's sea walls. In addition, the Emperor concluded an alliance with the Bulgar khan
Tervel
, who agreed to harass the invaders' rear.
[16]
From July 717 to August 718, the city was besieged by land and sea by the Muslims, who built an extensive double line of
circumvallation
and
contravallation
on the landward side, isolating the capital. Their attempt to complete the blockade by sea however failed when the
Byzantine navy
employed
Greek fire
against them; the Arab fleet kept well off the city walls, leaving Constantinople's supply routes open. Forced to extend the siege into winter, the besieging army suffered horrendous casualties from the cold and the lack of provisions.
[17]
[18]
In spring, new reinforcements were sent by the new caliph,
Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz
(r. 717?720), by sea from Africa and Egypt and over land through Asia Minor. The crews of the new fleets were composed mostly of Christians, who began defecting in large numbers, while the land forces were ambushed and defeated in
Bithynia
. As famine and an epidemic continued to plague the Arab camp, the siege was abandoned on 15 August 718. On its return, the Arab fleet suffered further casualties to storms and an eruption of the volcano of
Thera
.
[18]
[19]
Even during the siege, Leo had been able to stifle attempts at secession: his troops swiftly overthrew a revolt in
Sicily
, where a certain
Basil Onomagoulos
was declared emperor. In 719, he also weathered an attempt by the deposed Anastasios II to recover his throne with Bulgar help.
[13]
[20]
Leo further strengthened his position by crowning his wife
Maria
as
Augusta
in 718 and his son
Constantine
as co-emperor in 720.
[20]
[21]
Profiting from the weakened state of the Caliphate after the enormous losses they had suffered before Constantinople, Leo was able to launch a counter-offensive which achieved some success. The Arabs soon recovered however, and from 720 launched annual raids that devastated large parts of Asia Minor, despite a Byzantine alliance with the
Khazars
, who launched attacks on the Caliphate's northern flank.
Iconium
and
Caesarea
were sacked, and Byzantine troops were again driven out of Armenia.
[18]
[22]
Beginning of Iconoclasm
[
edit
]
Leo's frustration at his military failures led him to believe, in the fashion of the time, that the Empire had lost divine favour. Already in 722 he had tried to force the conversion of the Empire's Jews, but soon he began to turn his attention to the veneration of
icons
, which some bishops had come to regard as
idolatrous
. Following the renewed eruption of Thera in 726, he published an edict condemning their use, and had the image of
Christ
removed from the
Chalke Gate
, the ceremonial entrance to the
Great Palace of Constantinople
. The Emperor showed himself increasingly critical of the
iconophiles
, and in a court council in 730 he formally banned depictions of religious figures.
[18]
[23]
[24]
Leo's espousal of iconoclasm caused reactions among both the populace and the Church. The soldiers that took down the image of Christ from the Chalke were lynched, and a thematic rebellion that broke out in Greece in 727, was at least in part motivated by iconophile fervour. The
Patriarch Germanos I
resigned, to be replaced by the more pliant
Anastasios
. The emperor's edict drew the condemnation of popes
Gregory II
and
Gregory III
, as well as
John of Damascus
. Generally however, the dispute remained limited, as Leo refrained from actively persecuting iconophiles.
[18]
[25]
The rift with the Papacy had other reasons as well: Leo transferred the dioceses of the eastern Illyricum (roughly the old
Diocese of Macedonia
) from Rome to the jurisdiction of Constantinople, and further deprived the Pope of the revenues of Sicily and
Calabria
. At the same time, Leo failed to provide aid to the embattled Byzantine Exarchate of Ravenna. In 727, the local Byzantine forces overthrew their commander, and in c. 738, the city was taken for a time by the
Lombard
king
Liutprand
.
[26]
[27]
[28]
Final years
[
edit
]
The adoption of iconoclasm seemed indeed to be vindicated in the Emperor's eyes, for success returned to the Imperial arms, and the Muslims suffered a series of defeats between 727 and 732. The next years were more difficult, especially as the Arabs defeated the Khazars and forced their leader to convert to
Islam
. In 740 however the emperor and his son scored a decisive victory over an invading Arab army at
Akroinon
, which halted the momentum of the Arab attacks.
[28]
[29]
[30]
In March 741 (older sources prefer to date it to 726), Leo also promulgated the
Ecloga
, a revised selection of laws, drawn chiefly from the older
Codex Justinianus
. Christian influence is evident in the marked decrease of crimes subject to
capital punishment
, but the collection conversely expanded the use of mutilation, perceived as more humane, as punishment. The
Ecloga
proved popular as a concise legal handbook, remaining the standard legal text until the introduction of the
Epanagoge
in the late 9th century, and was translated into
Slavonic
,
Arabic
and
Armenian
.
[31]
[32]
Leo died peacefully in his bed on 18 June 741, the first emperor to do so since Constantine IV. During his reign, he had succeeded in warding off the Arab attacks and consolidating the Empire's eastern frontier. On the other hand, his introduction of a new and unnecessary theological dispute, albeit for the moment relatively mild, compromised his efforts to restore stability to the Empire.
[33]
Constantine V, 741?775
[
edit
]
Constantine was born in
Constantinople
, the son and successor of Emperor
Leo III
and
Maria
. In August 720 he was associated on the throne by his father, who had him marry
Tzitzak
, daughter of the
Khazar
khagan
Bihar
. His new bride was baptized as Irene (
Eir?n?
, "peace") in 732. Constantine V succeeded his father as sole emperor on April 19, 741.
Civil war against Artabasdos and first battles against veneration of images
[
edit
]
Constantine was crossing
Asia Minor
to campaign against the
Umayyad Caliphate
under
Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik
on the eastern frontier in June 741 or 742. But during this course Constantine was attacked by the forces of his brother-in-law
Artabasdos
, the
strat?gos
of the Armeniac
theme
. Artabasdos was the husband of
Anna
, an older sister of Constantine.
Defeated, Constantine sought refuge in
Amorion
, while the victor advanced on
Constantinople
and was accepted as emperor. While Constantine now received the support of the
Anatolic
and
Thracesian
themes, Artabasdos secured that of the themes of
Thrace
and
Opsikion
, in addition to his own Armeniac soldiers.
After the rival emperors had bided their time in military preparations, Artabasdos marched against Constantine, but was defeated in May 743. Three months later Constantine defeated Artabasdos' son Niketas and headed for Constantinople. In early November Constantine was admitted into the capital and immediately turned on his opponents, having them blinded or executed. Perhaps because Artabasdos' usurpation was interconnected with the restoration of veneration of images, Constantine now became perhaps an even more fervent
iconoclast
than his father.
Constantine's derogatory epithet
Kopronymos
("Dung-named": from
kopros
, "
feces
" or "animal
dung
"; and
onoma
, "
name
"), was applied to him by his avowed enemies over this extremely emotional issue, the
iconodules
. Using the obscene name they spread the rumour that, as an infant, he had defecated in his baptismal font, or the imperial purple cloth with which he was swaddled.
Campaign against icons
[
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]
Constantine's position about iconoclasm was clear:
....He cannot be depicted. For what is depicted in one person, and he who circumscribes that person has plainly circumscribed the divine nature which is incapable of being circumscribed.
[34]
In February 754 Constantine convened a
synod at Hieria
, which was attended entirely by
Iconoclast
bishops. The council approved of Constantine's religious policy and secured the election of a new Iconoclast patriarch, but refused to follow in all of Constantine's views. The council confirmed the status of Mary as Theotokos, or Mother of God, reinforced the use of the terms "saint" and "holy" as meet, and condemned the desecration, burning, or looting of churches in the quest to quench Iconophiles.
It was followed by a campaign to remove images from the walls of churches and to purge the court and bureaucracy of
Iconodules
. Since monasteries tended to be strongholds of
Iconophile
sentiment, Constantine specifically targeted the monks, pairing them off and forcing them to marry nuns in the
Hippodrome
and expropriating monastic property for the benefit of the state or the army. The repressions against the monks (culminating in 766) were largely led by the emperor's general
Michael Lachanodrakon
, who threatened resistant monks with blinding and exile.
An iconodule abbot,
Stephen Neos
, was brutally lynched by a mob at the behest of the authorities. As a result, many monks fled to southern Italy and
Sicily
. By the end of Constantine's reign, Iconoclasm had gone as far as to brand
relics
and prayers to the
saints
as
heretical
.
Ultimately, iconophiles considered his death a divine punishment. In the 9th century, he was disinterred and his remains were thrown into the sea.
Campaigns against the Arabs and Bulgaria
[
edit
]
Constantine was also an able general and administrator. He reorganised the
themes
, the military districts of the empire, and created new field army divisions called
tagmata
. This organization was intended to minimize the threat of conspiracies and to enhance the defensive capabilities of the Empire. With this reorganized army he embarked on campaigns on the three major frontiers.
In 746, profiting by the unstable conditions in the Umayyad Caliphate which was falling apart under
Marwan II
, Constantine invaded Syria and captured Germanikeia (modern
Mara?
, his father's birthplace). He organised the resettlement of part of the local Christian population to imperial territory in
Thrace
. In 747 his fleet destroyed the Arab fleet off
Cyprus
. In 752 Constantine led an invasion into the new
Abbasid Caliphate
under
As-Saffah
. Constantine captured Theodosioupolis and Melitene (
Malatya
), and again resettled some of the population in the
Balkans
. These campaigns failed to secure any concrete gains (apart from additional population employed to strengthen another frontier), but it is important to note that under Constantine V the Empire had gone on the offensive.
These successes made it possible to pursue an aggressive policy in the Balkans. With the resettlement of Christian populations from the East into Thrace, Constantine V aimed to enhance the prosperity and defence of this area which caused concern to the Empire's northern neighbour,
Bulgaria
, and the two states clashed in 755.
Kormisosh
of Bulgaria raided as far as the
Anastasian Wall
, but was defeated in battle by Constantine V, who inaugurated a long series of nine successful campaigns against the Bulgarians in the next year, scoring a victory over Kormisosh's successor
Vinekh
at
Marcellae
.
Three year later he was defeated in the
battle of the Rishki Pass
but the Bulgarians did not exploit their success. In 763, he sailed to Anchialus with 800 ships carrying 9,600 cavalry and some infantry. Constantine's victories, including that at
Anchialus
in 763 caused considerable instability in Bulgaria, where six monarchs lost their crowns on account of their failures.
In 751,
Lombard
king
Aistulf
captured
Ravenna
, ending over two centuries of Byzantine rule.
In 775, Constantine was persuaded to reveal to the Bulgarian ruler
Telerig
the identities of his agents in Bulgaria. These were promptly eliminated; thus, Constantine began preparations for a new campaign against the Bulgarians ? during which he died on September 14, 775.
Constantine's campaigns were costly; during his reign the Byzantine Empire's annual revenues were reduced to about 1,800,000
nomismata
due to his various wars and the Arab conquests.
Leo IV, 775?780
[
edit
]
Leo was the son of Emperor
Constantine V
by his first wife,
Tzitzak
of
Khazaria
(known as Irene upon her conversion),
[35]
the daughter of a Khagan of the Khazars (thought to be
Bihar
). Crowned co-emperor by his father in 751 Leo then married
Irene
, an Athenian from a noble family, in December 769. In 775 Constantine V died, leaving Leo as sole emperor.
[36]
On 24 April 776 Leo, following the precedent set by his father and grandfather, appointed his son, Constantine VI, co-emperor. This led to an uprising of Leo's five half-brothers, including
Caesar
Nikephoros
, who had hoped to gain the throne themselves. The uprising was put down quickly, with the conspirators being beaten,
tonsured
, and exiled to
Cherson
under guard.
[37]
Leo IV was raised as an
iconoclast
under his father but was married to Irene, an
iconodule
.
[38]
[39]
Realizing the division in his realm he pursued a path of conciliation towards the iconodules, previously declared heretical under imperial policy. Leo allowed monks, persecuted and deported under his father, to return to their monasteries, and he was anointed by some among the orthodox as “Friend to the Mother of God” for allowing monks to retain images of the
Theotokos
. In addition to the concessionary actions Leo also appointed an iconodule sympathizer,
Paul of Cyprus
, to the position of patriarch of Constantinople upon the death of the predecessor. At the end of his reign, Leo reversed his stance of toleration.
[40]
Leo's reign coincided with that of the third
Abbasid Caliph
,
Al-Mahdi
, who invaded Byzantine lands on successive occasions from 777 to 780 before ultimately being repulsed by Leo's armies, led by generals such as
Michael Lachanodrakon
. Leo himself set out with his army against the
Bulgars
but died of fever while on campaign.
[41]
[42]
Leo's death on 8 September 780 resulted in the ascension of his wife, Irene, to the throne.
Constantine VI and the regency of Irene, 780?797
[
edit
]
The only child of Emperor Leo IV and Irene, Constantine VI was crowned co-emperor by his father in 776. Leo's premature death in 780 left Constantine as sole emperor at the age of nine, with Irene serving as his regent.
In 782 he was betrothed to
Rotrude
, a daughter of the
Frankish
King
Charlemagne
by his third wife
Hildegard
. Irene herself broke off the engagement in 788. In 787 Constantine had signed the decrees of the
Second Council of Nicaea
, but he appears to have had
iconoclast
sympathies.
Upon turning sixteen, Constantine was eligible to rule independently. Irene remained an active participant in the government; after a conspiracy against her was suppressed in the spring of 790, she sought official recognition as empress. With military support from the
Armeniacs
, Constantine rebuffed his mother and entered upon a period of sole rule. In 792 he reversed his position, granting Irene the title of Empress and making her his official colleague.
The weakness of Constantine caused dissatisfaction among his supporters. He showed unheroic behaviour after the defeats at the hands of
Kardam of Bulgaria
in 791 and 792. A movement developed in favor of his uncle, the
Caesar
Nikephoros
. Constantine had his uncle's eyes put out and the tongues of his father's four other half-brothers cut off. His former Armenian supporters revolted after he had blinded their general
Alexios Mosele
. He crushed this revolt with extreme cruelty in 793.
He then divorced his wife
Maria of Amnia
, who had failed to provide him with a male heir, and married his mistress
Theodote
, an unpopular and possibly illegal act, although the
Patriarch
ignored it. By his actions Constantine had lost all support, both of the ruling orthodox and the iconoclast opposition.
In 797 Constantine was captured and blinded by the supporters of his mother, who had organized a conspiracy. According to most contemporary accounts, he died from his wounds a few days later, leaving Irene to be crowned as first Empress regnant of Constantinople. Pretenders to the throne claiming to be Constantine VI later appeared during the reign of
Michael II
.
Irene's sole rule and downfall, 797?802
[
edit
]
Although it is often claimed that, as monarch, Irene called herself "
basileus
" (βασιλε??), 'emperor', rather than "basilissa" (βασ?λισσα), 'empress', in fact there are only three instances where it is known that she used the title "basileus": two legal documents in which she signed herself as "Emperor of the Romans" and a gold coin of hers found in Sicily bearing the title of "basileus". In relation to the coin, the lettering is of poor quality and the attribution to Irene may, therefore, be problematic. In reality, she used the title "basilissa" in all other documents, coins and seals.
[43]
Family tree of Isaurian/Syrian dynasty
[
edit
]
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
Whittow (1996), pp. 73?82
- ^
Cheynet (2006), pp. 3?6
- ^
Cheynet (2006), pp. 6?9
- ^
Cheynet (2006), pp. 10?12
- ^
Whittow (1996), p. 138
- ^
Kazhdan (1991), pp. 350?351
- ^
Whittow (1996), pp. 89?95
- ^
Kazhdan (1991), pp. 351, 2035
- ^
Whittow (1996), pp. 119?121
- ^
Cheynet (2006), p. 9
- ^
Haldon (1990), pp. 73?74
- ^
Kazhdan (1991), pp. 1014, 1208
- ^
a
b
Kazhdan (1991), p. 1208
- ^
Treadgold (1997), p. 345
- ^
Cheynet (2006), p. 12
- ^
Treadgold (1997), pp. 346?347
- ^
Treadgold (1997), p. 347
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
Cheynet (2006), p. 13
- ^
Treadgold (1997), pp. 347?349
- ^
a
b
Treadgold (1997), pp. 347, 349
- ^
Kazhdan (1991), p. 1209
- ^
Treadgold (1997), pp. 349?350
- ^
Treadgold (1997), pp. 350?353
- ^
Whittow (1996), pp. 139?142
- ^
Treadgold (1997), pp. 352?354
- ^
Kazhdan (1991), pp. 1208?1209, 1774
- ^
Treadgold (1997), pp. 352, 355
- ^
a
b
Cheynet (2006), p. 14
- ^
Whittow (1996), p. 143
- ^
Treadgold (1997), p. 355
- ^
Kazhdan (1991), pp. 672?673, 1208
- ^
Treadgold (1997), p. 350
- ^
Treadgold (1997), p. 356
- ^
Nikephoros,
Antiherreticus
I, PG 100, 301C; trans. Bryer & Herrin
- ^
"Roman Emperors ? DIR Irene (wife of Leo III)"
.
www.roman-emperors.org
. Retrieved
18 April
2018
.
- ^
The Chronicle of Theophanes Anni Mundi 6095?6305 (A.D. 602?813): Tr. Harry Turtledove (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1982), p 135-136.
- ^
The Chronicle of Theophanes Anni Mundi 6095?6305 (A.D. 602?813): Tr. Harry Turtledove (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1982), 137.
- ^
Byzantium: The Imperial Centuries (A.D. 610?1071):
Romilly Jenkins
(Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1966), p 92.
- ^
The Byzantine Revival: Warren Treadgold (Stanford University Press, 1988), p 5.
- ^
Byzantium: The Imperial Centuries (A.D. 610?1071):
Romilly Jenkins
(Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1966), p 91.
- ^
"Roman Emperors ? DIR Leo III"
.
www.roman-emperors.org
. Retrieved
18 April
2018
.
- ^
A History of Byzantium (second edition): Timothy E. Gregory (Blackwell, 2010), p 213.
- ^
Liz James, "Men, Women, Eunuchs: Gender, Sex, and Power" in "A Social History of Byzantium" (J. Haldon, ed.) pp. 45,46; published 2009;
ISBN
978-1-4051-3241-1
Sources
[
edit
]
- Cheynet, Jean-Claude, ed. (2006),
Le Monde Byzantin: Tome II, L'Empire byzantin 641?1204
(in French), Paris: Presses Universitaires de France,
ISBN
978-2-13-052007-8
- Haldon, John F. (1990),
Byzantium in the Seventh Century: The Transformation of a Culture
, Cambridge University Press,
ISBN
978-0-521-31917-1
- Haldon, John
(1999).
Warfare, State and Society in the Byzantine World, 565?1204
. London: UCL Press.
ISBN
1-85728-495-X
.
- Kazhdan, Alexander
, ed. (1991).
The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium
. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.
ISBN
0-19-504652-8
.
- Lilie, Ralph-Johannes
(1996),
Byzanz unter Eirene und Konstantin VI. (780?802)
(in German), Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang,
ISBN
3-631-30582-6
- Ostrogorsky, George
(1997),
History of the Byzantine State
, Rutgers University Press,
ISBN
978-0-8135-1198-6
- Rochow, Ilse (1994),
Kaiser Konstantin V. (741?775). Materialien zu seinem Leben und Nachleben
(in German), Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang,
ISBN
3-631-47138-6
- Runciman, Steven
(1975),
Byzantine civilisation
, Taylor & Francis,
ISBN
978-0-416-70380-1
- Treadgold, Warren
(1988).
The Byzantine Revival, 780?842
. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press.
ISBN
978-0-8047-1462-4
.
- Treadgold, Warren
(1997).
A History of the Byzantine State and Society
. Stanford, California:
Stanford University Press
.
ISBN
0-8047-2630-2
.
- Whittow, Mark
(1996).
The Making of Byzantium, 600?1025
. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press.
ISBN
978-0-520-20496-6
.
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Preceding
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Early
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Middle
(717–1204)
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Late
(1204–1453)
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By modern region
or territory
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