The literature of
Myanmar
(
Burmese
:
??????????
) spans over a millennium. The Burmese language, unlike other Southeast Asian languages (e.g.
Thai
,
Khmer
), adopted words primarily from
P?li
rather than from
Sanskrit
. In addition, Burmese literature tends to reflect local folklore and culture.
Burmese literature has historically been a very important aspect of Burmese life steeped in the Pali
Canon
of
Buddhism
. Traditionally, Burmese children were educated by
monks
in monasteries in towns and villages. During British colonial rule, instruction was formalised and unified, and often bilingual, in both
English
and Burmese known as Anglo-Vernacular. Burmese literature played a key role in disseminating nationalism among the Burmese during the colonial era, with writers such as
Thakin Kodaw Hmaing
, an outspoken critic of British colonialism in Burma.
Beginning soon after self-rule,
government censorship in Burma has been heavy
, stifling literary expression.
[1]
Classical literature
[
edit
]
The earliest forms of Burmese literature were on stone engravings called
kyauksa
(
Burmese
:
????????
) for memorials or for special occasions such as the building of a temple or a monastery. Later, palm leaves called
peisa
(
????
) were used as paper, which resulted in the rounded forms of the
Burmese alphabet
. During the
Bagan dynasty
, King
Anawrahta
adopted
Theravada Buddhism
as the state religion, and brought many Pali texts from
Ceylon
. These texts were translated, but Pali remained the literary medium of the Burmese kingdom. Furthermore, Pali influenced Burmese language in structure, because of literal translations of Pali text called
nissaya
(
????
).
The earliest works of Burmese literature date from the Bagan dynasty. They include proses recording monarchical merit acts and poetic works, the earliest of which was
Yakhaing minthami eigyin
(
Cradle Song of the Princess of Arakan
), dated to 1455.
[2]
During the Bagan and Inwa dynasties, two primary types of literature flourished,
mawgun
(
?????????
) and
eigyin
,
(
??????
) and
pyo
(
?????
), religious works generally derived from the
Jataka
tales.
[2]
Non-fiction and religious works prevailed during this period although
kagyin
(
???????
), a war poem by a monarch, was an early form of this genre in history.
[3]
As literature grew more liberal and secular, poetry became the most popular form of literature in Burma. The flexibility of the
Burmese language
, because of its
monosyllabic
and tonal nature, and its lack of many
consonantal
finals allowed poetry to utilise various rhyming schemes. By the 15th century, four primary genres of poetry had emerged, namely
pyo
(poems based on the
Jataka Tales
,
linka
[
my
]
(
??????
metaphysical and religious poems),
mawgun
(historical verses written as a hybrid of epic and ode), and
eigyin
(lullabies of the royal family).
Courtiers
also perfected the
myittaza
(
????????
), a long prose letter.
Buddhist monks were also influential in developing Burmese literature. Shin Aggathammadi rendered in verse the
Jataka
stories. During this time,
Shin Maha Thilawuntha
(1453?1520) wrote a chronicle on the history of Buddhism. A contemporary of his, Shin Ottama Gyaw, was famous for his epic verses called
tawla
(
??????
) that revelled in the natural beauty of the seasons, forests and travel. Yawei Shin Htwe, a maid of honour, wrote another form of poetry called
aingyin
on the 55 styles of hairdressing.
[4]
After the conquest of
Siam
by the
Toungoo dynasty
, Thailand became a Burmese colony. This conquest incorporated many Thai elements into Burmese literature. Most evident were the
yadu
or
yatu
(
???
), an emotional and philosophic verse and the
yagan
(
????
), which imitated the themes of the
yadu
genre, which was more emotionally involved, could be inspired by mood, place, incident, and often addressed to sweethearts and wives. Famous writers of
yadu
include
Nawade I
(1545?1600) and Prince
Natshinnaung
(1578?1619).
[2]
Some parts of Laos and Cambodia also became Burmese colonies during Second Burmese Empire and thereby influenced Burmese literature.
In the areas of law, there were two major types of literature,
dhammathat
(
???????
), which appeared prior to the 13th century, and
shauk-htone
(
???????????
), which were compilations of brief accounts of historic cases and events in simple narrative to serve as guides and legal precedents for rulers.
[2]
As the
Konbaung dynasty
emerged in the 18th century, the Third Burmese Empire was founded. This era has been dubbed the "Golden Age of Literature", with poets such as
Letwe Thondara
, Hlaing Thate Khaung Tin, Selay U Ponenya. After a second conquest of
Ayutthaya
(Thailand), many spoils of war were brought to the Burmese court. The
Ramayana
(
?????
) was introduced and was adapted in Burmese. In addition, the
Ramayana
inspired romantic poems, which became popular literary sojourns among the royal class. Burmese literature during this period was therefore modelled after the
Ramayana
, and dramatic plays were patronised by the Burmese court.
[5]
The other famous literature are called:
taydat
(
??????
),
laygyo
(
????????
),
dwaygyo
(
?????????
) and
bawle
(
??????
).
[2]
First printing press (1816)
[
edit
]
The arrival of the first printing press in Burma in 1816, sent by the British
Serampore Mission
, helped to liberalise centuries-old traditions of writing in verse (
lay-lone tha-paik
(
????????????????
), a poetry type, where four syllable lines are linked in a climbing rhyme and grouped into stanzas of 30 lines.).
[2]
Monks remained powerful in Burmese literature, compiling histories of Burma.
Kyigan Shingyi
(1757?1807) wrote the
Jataka Tales
incorporating Burmese elements, including the
myittaza
(Pali
metta
or love + Burmese
sa
or letter), which are love letters and are important sources of first-hand accounts of the economic and social changes Burma was undergoing before colonialism.
[2]
During the
First Anglo-Burmese War
(1823?1826), more solemn and muted moods exuded from Burmese literature, including lyrical music. In addition,
yazawin
, historical chronicles, became important in the Konbaung dynasty, although they had been written since the Inwa dynasty. In 1724, U Kala wrote the
Maha yazawin gyi
(The Great Chronicles), covering Burmese history until 1711.
[2]
In 1829, King
Bagyidaw
appointed scholars to compile the
Hmannan yazawin dawgyi
(
Glass Palace Chronicle
), covering Burmese history until 1821.
[2]
A successor king, King
Mindon Min
appointed a committee of Burmese scholars from 1867 to 1869 to create the
Dutiya maha yazawin dawgyi
(The Second Great Royal Chronicles).
[2]
British Burma (1824-1948)
[
edit
]
When Burma became a colony of
British India
, Burmese literature continued to flourish, even though the institution of the Burmese monarchy, the leading patron of Burmese arts and literature in
pre-colonial
times, had been dismantled. English literature was still relatively inaccessible although both English and Burmese, in a curriculum called Anglo-Vernacular, was now taught in schools.
[1]
Despite the fact that Burmese literature was well entrenched in Burmese culture, the lack of patrons to support literature slowed its further development. The colonial period marked a tremendous change in Burmese literature, which had once been patronised and innovated by members of the royal court, and was now being led by civilians such as university students.
In 1910,
J S Furnivall
established the
Burma Research Society
, which further emboldened the Burmese to protect their literary and cultural heritage.
[2]
Beginning in the 1920s, a nationalist movement emerged, and this influence became evident in modern novels,
short stories
, and poems. At the
University of Rangoon
, student writers continued to develop new forms of Burmese poetry.
A major landmark in Burmese literature was called the
Hkit san
(Testing the Times,
????????
) movement, a search for a new style and content, led most notably by
Theippan Maung Wa
along with
Nwe Soe
,
Zawgyi
,
Min Thu Wun
and Mya Kaytu, while still at university and after, in the decade before the
Second World War
.
[6]
[7]
During the
Hkit san
movement,
University of Rangoon
students innovated new styles of writing, with shorter and clearer sentences, and unadorned prose, a radical transformation from royal writings of the pre-colonial eras beforehand.
[2]
The movement for independence continued to fuel Burmese literature.
Thakin Kodaw Hmaing
was greatly influential in spawning this anti-colonial literature with his powerful
laygyo gyi
(
????????????
) and
htika
(
????
) verses famous for their patriotic and satirical content.
[6]
Hmawbi Hsaya Thein
was particularly influential, with
Bazat yazawin
(Oral Chronicles), which relied on oral tradition. Novels also came into vogue, with the first being
James Hla Kyaw
's
Maung Yin Maung Ma Me Ma
, written in 1904 and inspired by the
Count of Monte Cristo
.
Kala paw wut-htu
(
????????????
, 'modern novels') became popular during this era, with
P Moe Nin
writing the first Burmese novels to focus on the individual and place that character at the centre of the plot.
[2]
Theippan Maung Wa and
Thein Pe Myint
[6]
were among other original and innovative authors from the colonial period. Female writers, such as
Dagon Khin Khin Lay
, who wrote about the hardships of
peasant
life under colonialism, also gained prominence during the nationalist period leading up to independence.
[2]
The British author
George Orwell
, who was severely critical of British colonialism, wrote
Burmese Days
published in 1935.
In addition, literary culture in Burma expanded to the masses during this period, with the arrival of printing presses and publishers, such as the Hanthawaddy Press, a major publisher of Burmese and Buddhist works established by Phillip Ripley.
[2]
In the 1920s to the 1930s, monthly literary magazines like
Dagon
and
Ganda Lawka
(World of Classics) were published to connect readers to writers, who often published novels in serial installations.
Post-independence literature (1948-)
[
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]
After independence in 1948, Burmese literature developed further to adopt and assimilate Western styles of writing. A year earlier, the Burmese Translation Society, a government-subsidised organisation, was founded to translate foreign works, especially those related to the fields of science and technology. In 1963, a year after the socialist coup, the society was merged into the Sapay Beikman (
??????????
), a government publishing house. Another influential publisher was the Pagan Press (est. 1962), which translated
Socialist
and
Marxist
works into Burmese.
[2]
In 1976, the first
Burmese Encyclopedia
(
??????? ????????????
) was published.
The socialist government, like the previous civilian government, was a patron of Burmese literature, believing "enriching literature" to be a goal of
socialist democracies
, as outlined in the Revolutionary Council's
System of Correlation of Man and his Environment
. However, censorship and promotion of socialist ideology became important aims of the government, in regulating literature, as seen in the reorganisation of the
Ministry of Information
, which censored works according to three primary objectives that aimed to promote socialism:
[1]
- To introduce necessary bills, acts and orders concerning literature and information agencies.
- To promote participation of the people in the construction of the socialist state.
- To defend the socialist system from its ideological enemies.
?
Discussion of the National Literary Conference
. Rangoon: Ministry of Information, 1963.
Censorship
[
edit
]
In 1971, the government formed the Burmese literary Commission, to develop Burmese literature further.
[1]
On 5 July 1975, the Printers and Publishers' Central Registration Board, the main censorship board of the Home Ministry (four years earlier, the Board had been a part of the Information Ministry), issued a statement to warn publishers to self-censor works (especially those criticising the
Burma Socialist Programme Party
, the government, pornographic writing and libel), undermining the principle of
freedom of expression
.
[1]
Many contemporary works are of
history
and
biographical
accounts. Because of strict government censorship beginning in the 1960s with the rule of
Ne Win
, Burmese literature has become subdued in many ways.
By 1976, only 411 titles were published annually, compared to 1882, when 445 titles were published.
[1]
[8]
Various factors, especially the lengthened bureaucratic process to obtain printing permits, censorship, and increasing economic hardship of consumers because of the socialist economic schemes, contributed to the decline of Burmese literary output.
Popular novels have similar themes, often involving adventure, espionage, detective work, and romance. Many writers also translate Western novels, especially those of
Arthur Hailey
and
Harold Robbins
. The flourishing translation sector is the result of the Burmese government, which did not sign the
Universal Copyright Convention
Agreement, which would have forced Burmese writers to pay royalties to the original writers.
[1]
Short stories, often published in magazines, also enjoy tremendous popularity. They often deal with everyday life and have political messages (such as subtle criticisms of the capitalist system), partly because unlike novels, short stories are not censored by the
Press Scrutiny Board
. Poetry is also a popular genre today, as it was during the monarchical times, but unlike novels and other works, which use literary Burmese, may use the vernacular, instead of literary Burmese. This reform movement is led by left-leaning writers who believe laymen's language (the vernacular and colloquial form of
Burmese
) ought to be used instead of formal Burmese in literature.
[1]
One of the greatest female writers of the Post-colonial period is
Journal Kyaw Ma Ma Lay
.
Khin Myo Chit
was another important writer, who wrote, among her works,
The 13-Carat Diamond
(1955), which was translated into many languages. The journalist
Ludu U Hla
was the author of numerous volumes of ethnic minority folklore, novels about inmates in
U Nu
-era jails, and biographies of people working in different occupations. The prime minister
U Nu
himself wrote several politically oriented plays and novels.
Other prolific writers of the post-colonial era include
Thein Pe Myint
(and his
The Ocean Traveller and the Pearl Queen
, considered a Burmese classic),
Mya Than Tint
(known for his translations of Western classics like
War and Peace
), Thawda Swe and Myat Htun. Distinguished female writers, who have also been an ever-present force in Burmese literary history, include
Kyi Aye
,
Khin Hnin Yu
, and
San San Nweh
.
Contemporary
[
edit
]
In 2012, the
anthology
Bones Will Crow: 15 Contemporary Burmese Poets
[9]
was edited by
Ko Ko Thett
and James Byrne. It featured poetry from Tin Moe,
Thitsar Ni
, Aung Cheimt, Ma Ei, Maung Chaw Nwe, Maung Pyiyt Min, Khin Aung Aye, Zeyar Lynn, Maung Thein Zaw, Moe Zaw, Moe Way, ko ko thett, Eaindra, Pandora and Maung Yu Py, and was published by Arc Publications Anthologies in Translation series and, later in 2013, by Northern Illinois University Press in the United States. This bilingual English/Burmese edition of poetry is regarded as the first anthology of modern Burmese poetry in the West.
[
citation needed
]
Notable writers
[
edit
]
The journalist
Ludu U Hla
(1910?1982) was the author of numerous volumes of ethnic minority folklore, novels about inmates in U Nu-era jails, and biographies of people working in different occupations. The prime minister U Nu himself wrote several politically oriented plays and novels.
Other writers who came of age prior to 1947 during the colonial era included
Hmawbi Saya Thein
(1862?1942),
James Hla Kyaw
(1866-1919),
U Ottama
(1879?1939),
Thakin Kodaw Hmaing
(1876?1964),
P Moe Nin
(1883-1940),
Pe Maung Tin
(1888?1973),
Po Kya
(1891?1942),
Theippan Maung Wa
(1899?1942),
Dagon Khin Khin Lay
(1904?1981),
Saya Zawgyi
(1907-1990),
Htin Aung
(1909?1978),
Min Thu Wun
(1909-2004),
Thukha
(1910?2005),
Chit Maung
(1913?1945),
Thein Pe Myint
(1914?1978) who wrote the classic
The Ocean Traveller and the Pearl Queen
,
Richard Bartholomew
(1926?1985) and
Taw Phayar Galay
(1926?2006).
Younger authors who became well known in Burma include
Aung Thin
(born c. 1927),
Mya Than Tint
(1929?1998) who was known for his translations of Western classics like
War and Peace
,
Tekkatho Phone Naing
(1930?2002),
Maung Hsu Shin
(c. 1932?2009),
Tin Moe
(1933?2007),
Nanda Thein Zan
(1947-2011), and
Pascal Khoo Thwe
(born 1967).
Other well-known authors include
Thawda Swe
,
Chit Oo Nyo
,
Maung Khin Min (Danubyu)
,
and
Saw Wai
.
Well-known Burmese historians include
San C. Po
(1870?1946),
Htin Aung
(1909?1978),
Sao Saimong
(1913?1987),
Ba Shin
(1914-1971),
Than Tun
(1923?2005),
Myoma Myint Kywe
(born 1960) and
Thant Myint-U
(born 1966)
Distinguished female writers, who have also been an ever-present force in Burmese literary history, include
Kyi Aye
,
Ludu Daw Amar
(1915?2008),
Khin Hnin Yu
(1925?2003),
Aung San Suu Kyi
(born 1945),
Minfong Ho
(born 1951),
Nu Nu Yi
(born 1957),
San San Nweh
,
Jue
(born 1958),
Khin Khin Htoo
(born 1965)
Ma Sandar (1942 born) and
Mi Chan Wai.
One of the greatest female writers of the post-colonial period is
Journal Kyaw Ma Ma Lay
(1917-1982).
Khin Myo Chit
(1915?1999) was another important writer, who wrote, among her works,
The 13-Carat Diamond
(1955), which was translated into many languages.
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
External links
[
edit
]
- A Study of the Rise of the Burmese Novel
Zawgyi,
Journal of Burma Research Society
, June 1968
- University of Washington Library's Burmese literature database
- Myanmar Historical Fiction and their Historical Context
U Than Htut and U Thaw Kaung,
Perspective
, Dec. 2001
- Literature
- Ayinepan Literature
- Burmese Literature, Northern Illinois University
Archived
27 November 2020 at the
Wayback Machine
- Article on Dagon Taya
- Inked Over, Ripped Out: Burmese Storytellers and the Censors
, Anna J. Allott
- Burmese Contemporary Essays
A Review by Maung Swan Yi, VOA 1 September 2006
- Bones will Crow: 15 Contemporary Burmese Poets
, translated and edited by ko ko thett and James Byrne (ARC Publications, UK 2012)
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