Genus of flowering plants in the family Fagaceae
Beech
(
Fagus
) is a
genus
of
deciduous
trees
in the family
Fagaceae
, native to temperate Eurasia and North America. There are 13 accepted species in two distinct subgenera,
Engleriana
and
Fagus
. The subgenus
Engleriana
is found only in East Asia, distinctive for its low branches, often made up of several major trunks with yellowish bark. The better known
Fagus
subgenus beeches are native to Europe and North America. They are high-branching trees with tall, stout trunks and smooth silver-grey bark. The European beech
Fagus sylvatica
is the most commonly cultivated species, yielding a utility timber used for furniture construction, flooring and engineering purposes, in plywood, and household items. The timber can be used to build homes. Beechwood makes excellent
firewood
. Slats of washed beech wood are spread around the bottom of fermentation tanks for
Budweiser
beer. Beech logs are burned to dry the
malt
used in some German
smoked beers
. Beech is also used to smoke
Westphalian ham
,
andouille
sausage, and some cheeses.
Description
[
edit
]
Beeches are
monoecious
, bearing both male and female flowers on the same plant. The small flowers are unisexual, the female flowers borne in pairs, the male flowers wind-pollinating
catkins
. They are produced in spring shortly after the new leaves appear. The fruit of the beech tree, known as beechnuts or mast, is found in small
burrs
that drop from the tree in autumn. They are small, roughly triangular, and edible, with a bitter, astringent, or mild and nut-like taste.
The European beech (
Fagus sylvatica
) is the most commonly cultivated, although few important differences are seen between species aside from detail elements such as
leaf
shape. The leaves of beech trees are entire or sparsely toothed, from 5?15 centimetres (2?6 inches) long and 4?10 cm (2?4 in) broad.
The bark is smooth and light gray. The fruit is a small, sharply three-angled
nut
10?15 mm (
3
⁄
8
?
5
⁄
8
in) long, borne singly or in pairs in soft-spined husks
1.5?2.5 cm (
5
⁄
8
?1 in) long, known as cupules. The husk can have a variety of spine- to scale-like appendages, the character of which is, in addition to leaf shape, one of the primary ways beeches are differentiated.
[1]
The nuts have a bitter taste (though not nearly as bitter as
acorns
) and a high
tannin
content; these are called beechnuts
[2]
or beech mast.
Taxonomy
[
edit
]
Recent classification systems of the genus recognize 10 to 13 species in two distinct subgenera,
Engleriana
and
Fagus
.
[3]
[1]
The
Engleriana
subgenus is found only in East Asia, and is notably distinct from the
Fagus
subgenus in that these beeches are low-branching trees, often made up of several major trunks with yellowish bark. Further differentiating characteristics include the whitish bloom on the underside of the leaves, the visible tertiary leaf veins, and a long, smooth cupule-peduncle. Proposed by botanist Chung-Fu Shen in 1992,
F. japonica
,
F. engleriana
, and
F. okamotoi
comprise this subgenus.
[1]
The better known
Fagus
subgenus beeches are high-branching with tall, stout trunks and smooth silver-gray bark. This group includes
F. sylvatica
,
F. grandifolia
,
F. crenata
,
F. lucida
,
F. longipetiolata
, and
F. hayatae
.
[1]
The classification of the European beech,
F. sylvatica
, is complex, with a variety of different names proposed for different species and subspecies within this region (for example
F. taurica
,
F. orientalis
, and
F. moesica
[4]
). Research suggests that beeches in Eurasia differentiated fairly late in evolutionary history, during the
Miocene
. The populations in this area represent a range of often overlapping morphotypes, and genetic analysis does not clearly support separate species.
[5]
Fagus
is the most basal group in the evolution of the
Fagaceae
family, which also includes
oaks
and
chestnuts
.
[6]
The
southern beeches
(genus
Nothofagus
) previously thought closely related to beeches, are now treated as members of a separate family, the
Nothofagaceae
(which remains a member of the order
Fagales
). They are found throughout the Southern Hemisphere in
Australia
,
New Zealand
,
New Guinea
,
New Caledonia
, as well as
Argentina
and
Chile
(principally
Patagonia
and
Tierra del Fuego
).
Species
[
edit
]
Species accepted by
Plants of the World Online
as of April 2023
[update]
:
[7]
Natural hybrids
[
edit
]
Image
|
Name
|
Parentage
|
Distribution
|
|
Fagus × taurica
Popl.
? Crimean beech
|
F. orientalis
×
F. sylvatica
|
Eurasia
|
Fossil species
[
edit
]
Numerous species have been named globally from the fossil record spanning from the
Cretaceous
to the
Pleistocene
[8]
- †
Fagus aburatoensis
Tanai, 1951
[9]
- †
Fagus alnitifolia
Hollick
[10]
- †
Fagus altaensis
Kornilova & Rajushkina, 1979
- †
Fagus ambigua
(Massalongo) Massalongo, 1853
- †
Fagus angusta
Andreanszky, 1959
- †
Fagus antipofii
Heer, 1858
- †
Fagus aperta
Andreanszky, 1959
- †
Fagus arduinorum
Massalongo, 1858
- †
Fagus aspera
(Berry) Brown, 1944
- †
Fagus aspera
Chelebaeva, 2005
(jr homonym)
- †
Fagus atlantica
Unger, 1847
- †
Fagus attenuata
Goppert, 1855
- †
Fagus aurelianii
Marion & Laurent, 1895
- †
Fagus australis
Oliver, 1936
- †
Fagus betulifolia
Massalongo, 1858
- †
Fagus bonnevillensis
Chaney, 1920
- †
Fagus castaneifolia
Unger, 1847
- †
Fagus celastrifolia
Ettingshausen, 1887
- †
Fagus ceretana
(Rerolle) Saporta, 1892
- †
Fagus chamaephegos
Unger, 1861
- †
Fagus chankaica
Alexeenko, 1977
- †
Fagus chiericii
Massalongo, 1858
- †
Fagus chinensis
Li, 1978
- †
Fagus coalita
Rylova, 1996
- †
Fagus cordifolia
Heer, 1883
- †
Fagus cretacea
Newberry, 1868
- †
Fagus decurrens
Reid & Reid, 1915
- †
Fagus dentata
Goppert, 1855
- †
Fagus deucalionis
Unger, 1847
- †
Fagus dubia
Mirb, 1822
- †
Fagus dubia
Watelet, 1866
(jr homonym)
- †
Fagus echinata
Chelebaeva, 2005
- †
Fagus eocenica
Watelet, 1866
- †
Fagus etheridgei
Ettingshausen, 1891
- †
Fagus ettingshausenii
Velenovsky, 1881
- †
Fagus europaea
Schwarewa, 1960
- †
Fagus evenensis
Chelebaeva, 1980
- †
Fagus faujasii
Unger, 1850
- †
Fagus feroniae
Unger, 1845
- †
Fagus florinii
Huzioka & Takahashi, 1973
- †
Fagus forumlivii
Massalongo, 1853
- †
Fagus friedrichii
Grimsson & Denk, 2005
- †
Fagus gortanii
Fiori, 1940
- †
Fagus grandifoliiformis
Panova, 1966
- †
Fagus gussonii
Massalongo, 1858
- †
Fagus haidingeri
Kovats, 1856
- †
Fagus herthae
(Unger) Iljinskaja, 1964
- †
Fagus hitchcockii
Lesquereux, 1861
- †
Fagus hondoensis
(Watari) Watari, 1952
- †
Fagus hookeri
Ettingshausen, 1887
- †
Fagus horrida
Ludwig, 1858
- †
Fagus humata
Menge & Goppert, 1886
- †
Fagus idahoensis
Chaney & Axelrod, 1959
- †
Fagus inaequalis
Goppert, 1855
- †
Fagus incerta
(Massalongo) Massalongo, 1858
- †
Fagus integrifolia
Dusen, 1899
- †
Fagus intermedia
Nathorst, 1888
- †
Fagus irvajamensis
Chelebaeva, 1980
- †
Fagus japoniciformis
Ananova, 1974
- †
Fagus japonicoides
Miki, 1963
- †
Fagus jobanensis
Suzuki, 1961
- †
Fagus jonesii
Johnston, 1892
- †
Fagus juliae
Jakubovskaya, 1975
- †
Fagus kitamiensis
Tanai, 1995
- †
Fagus koraica
Huzioka, 1951
- †
Fagus kraeuselii
Kva?ek & Walther, 1991
- †
Fagus kuprianoviae
Rylova, 1996
- †
Fagus lancifolia
Heer, 1868
(nomen nudum)
- †
Fagus langevinii
Manchester & Dillhoff, 2004
[11]
- †
Fagus laptoneura
Ettingshausen, 1895
- †
Fagus latissima
Andreanszky, 1959
- †
Fagus leptoneuron
Ettingshausen, 1893
- †
Fagus macrophylla
Unger, 1854
- †
Fagus maorica
Oliver, 1936
- †
Fagus marsillii
Massalongo, 1858
- †
Fagus menzelii
Kva?ek & Walther, 1991
- †
Fagus microcarpa
Miki, 1933
- †
Fagus miocenica
Ananova, 1974
- †
Fagus napanensis
Iljinskaja, 1982
- †
Fagus nelsonica
Ettingshausen, 1887
- †
Fagus oblonga
Suzuki, 1959
- †
Fagus oblonga
Andreanszky, 1959
- †
Fagus obscura
Dusen, 1908
- †
Fagus olejnikovii
Pavlyutkin, 2015
- †
Fagus orbiculatum
Lesquereux, 1892
- †
Fagus orientaliformis
Kul'kova
- †
Fagus orientalis
var
fossilis
Kryshtofovich & Baikovskaja, 1951
- †
Fagus orientalis
var
palibinii
Iljinskaja, 1982
- †
Fagus pacifica
Chaney, 1927
- †
Fagus palaeococcus
Unger, 1847
- †
Fagus palaeocrenata
Okutsu, 1955
- †
Fagus palaeograndifolia
Pavlyutkin, 2002
- †
Fagus palaeojaponica
Tanai & Onoe, 1961
- †
Fagus pittmanii
Deane, 1902
- †
Fagus pliocaenica
Geyler & Kinkelin, 1887
(jr homonym)
- †
Fagus pliocenica
Saporta, 1882
- †
Fagus polycladus
Lesquereux, 1868
- †
Fagus praelucida
Li, 1982
- †
Fagus praeninnisiana
Ettingshausen, 1893
- †
Fagus praeulmifolia
Ettingshausen, 1893
- †
Fagus prisca
Ettingshausen, 1867
- †
Fagus pristina
Saporta, 1867
- †
Fagus producta
Ettingshausen, 1887
- †
Fagus protojaponica
Suzuki, 1959
- †
Fagus protolongipetiolata
Huzioka, 1951
- †
Fagus protonucifera
Dawson, 1884
- †
Fagus pseudoferruginea
Lesquereux, 1878
- †
Fagus pygmaea
Unger, 1861
- †
Fagus pyrrhae
Unger, 1854
- †
Fagus salnikovii
Fotjanova, 1988
- †
Fagus sanctieugeniensis
Hollick, 1927
- †
Fagus saxonica
Kva?ek & Walther, 1991
- †
Fagus schofieldii
Mindell, Stockey, & Beard, 2009
- †
Fagus septembris
Chelebaeva, 1991
- †
Fagus shagiana
Ettingshausen, 1891
- †
Fagus stuxbergii
Tanai, 1976
- †
Fagus subferruginea
Wilf
et al.
, 2005
[12]
- †
Fagus succinea
Goppert & Menge, 1853
- †
Fagus sylvatica
var
diluviana
Saporta, 1892
- †
Fagus sylvatica
var
pliocenica
Saporta, 1873
- †
Fagus tenella
Panova, 1966
- †
Fagus uemurae
Tanai, 1995
- †
Fagus uotanii
Huzioka, 1951
- †
Fagus vivianii
Unger, 1850
- †
Fagus washoensis
LaMotte, 1936
Fossil species formerly placed in
Fagus
include:
[8]
Etymology
[
edit
]
The name of the tree in Latin,
fagus
(from whence the
generic epithet
), is cognate with English "beech" and of
Indo-European
origin, and played an important role in early debates on the geographical origins of the
Indo-European people
, the
beech argument
.
Greek
φηγ?? (figos) is from the same root, but the word was transferred to the oak tree (e.g. Iliad 16.767) as a result of the absence of beech trees in southern
Greece
.
[13]
Distribution and habitat
[
edit
]
Britain and Ireland
[
edit
]
Fagus sylvatica
was a late entrant to
Great Britain
after the last glaciation, and may have been restricted to basic soils in the south of England. Some suggest that it was introduced by Neolithic tribes who planted the trees for their edible nuts.
[14]
The beech is classified as a native in the south of England and as a non-native in the north where it is often removed from 'native' woods.
[15]
Large areas of the
Chilterns
are covered with beech woods, which are habitat to the
common bluebell
and other flora. The
Cwm Clydach National Nature Reserve
in southeast Wales was designated for its beech woodlands, which are believed to be on the western edge of their natural range in this steep limestone gorge.
[16]
Beech is not native to Ireland; however, it was widely planted in the 18th century and can become a problem shading out the native woodland understory.
Beech is widely planted for hedging and in deciduous woodlands, and mature, regenerating stands occur throughout mainland Britain at elevations below about 650 m (2,100 ft).
[17]
The tallest and longest hedge in the world (according to
Guinness World Records
) is the
Meikleour Beech Hedge
in
Meikleour
,
Perth and Kinross
, Scotland.
Continental Europe
[
edit
]
Fagus sylvatica
is one of the most common hardwood trees in north-central Europe, in France constituting alone about 15% of all nonconifers. The Balkans are also home to the lesser-known oriental beech (
F. orientalis
) and Crimean beech (
F. taurica
).
As a naturally growing forest tree, beech marks the important border between the European deciduous forest zone and the northern pine forest zone. This border is important for wildlife and fauna.
In Denmark and Scania at the southernmost peak of the Scandinavian peninsula, southwest of the natural
spruce
boundary, it is the most common forest tree. It grows naturally in Denmark and southern Norway and Sweden up to about 57?59°N. The most northern known naturally growing (not planted) beech trees are found in a small grove north of
Bergen
on the west coast of Norway. Near the city of
Larvik
is the largest naturally occurring beech forest in Norway,
Bøkeskogen
.
Some research suggests that early agriculture patterns supported the spread of beech in continental Europe. Research has linked the establishment of beech stands in Scandinavia and Germany with cultivation and fire disturbance, i.e. early agricultural practices. Other areas which have a long history of cultivation, Bulgaria for example, do not exhibit this pattern, so how much human activity has influenced the spread of beech trees is as yet unclear.
[18]
The
primeval beech forests of the Carpathians
are also an example of a singular, complete, and comprehensive forest dominated by a single tree species - the beech tree. Forest dynamics here were allowed to proceed without interruption or interference since the last ice age. Nowadays, they are amongst the last pure beech forests in Europe to document the undisturbed postglacial repopulation of the species, which also includes the unbroken existence of typical animals and plants. These virgin beech forests and similar forests across 12 countries in continental Europe were inscribed on the
UNESCO World Heritage List
in 2007.
[19]
North America
[
edit
]
The American beech (
Fagus grandifolia
) occurs across much of the eastern United States and southeastern Canada, with a disjunct population in Mexico. It is the only
Fagus
species in the Western Hemisphere. Before the
Pleistocene
Ice Age, it is believed to have spanned the entire width of the continent from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific but now is confined to the east of the Great Plains.
F. grandifolia
tolerates hotter climates than European species but is not planted much as an ornamental due to slower growth and less resistance to urban pollution. It most commonly occurs as an overstory component in the northern part of its range with sugar maple, transitioning to other forest types further south such as beech-magnolia. American beech is rarely encountered in developed areas except as a remnant of a forest that was cut down for land development.
The dead brown leaves of the American beech remain on the branches until well into the following spring, when the new buds finally push them off.
Asia
[
edit
]
East Asia is home to five species of
Fagus
, only one of which (
F. crenata
) is occasionally planted in Western countries. Smaller than
F. sylvatica
and
F. grandifolia
, this beech is one of the most common hardwoods in its native range.
Ecology
[
edit
]
Beech grows on a wide range of soil types, acidic or basic, provided they are not waterlogged. The tree canopy casts dense shade and thickens the ground with
leaf litter
.
In North America, they can form
beech-maple
climax
forests by partnering with the
sugar maple
.
The
beech blight aphid
(
Grylloprociphilus imbricator
) is a common pest of American beech trees. Beeches are also used as food plants by some species of
Lepidoptera
.
Beech bark is extremely thin and scars easily. Since the beech tree has such delicate bark, carvings, such as lovers' initials and other forms of graffiti, remain because the tree is unable to heal itself.
[20]
Diseases
[
edit
]
Beech bark disease
is a fungal infection that attacks the American beech through damage caused by scale insects.
[21]
Infection can lead to the death of the tree.
[22]
Beech leaf disease
is a disease that affects American beeches spread by the newly discovered nematode,
Litylenchus crenatae mccannii
. This disease was first discovered in Lake County, Ohio, in 2012 and has now spread to over 41 counties in Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York, and Ontario, Canada.
[23]
As of 2024, the disease has become widespread in Connecticut, Massachusetts and Rhode Island, and in portions of coastal New Hampshire and coastal and central Maine.
[24]
Cultivation
[
edit
]
The beech most commonly grown as an
ornamental tree
is the European beech (
Fagus sylvatica
), widely cultivated in North America as well as its native Europe. Many varieties are in cultivation, notably the weeping beech
F. sylvatica
'Pendula', several varieties of copper or purple beech, the fern-leaved beech
F. sylvatica
'Asplenifolia', and the tricolour beech
F. sylvatica
'Roseomarginata'. The columnar Dawyck beech (
F. sylvatica
'Dawyck') occurs in green, gold, and purple forms, named after
Dawyck Botanic Garden
in the Scottish Borders, one of the four garden sites of the
Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh
.
Uses
[
edit
]
Wood
[
edit
]
Beech wood is an excellent
firewood
, easily split and burning for many hours with bright but calm flames. Slats of beech wood are washed in caustic soda to leach out any flavour or aroma characteristics and are spread around the bottom of fermentation tanks for
Budweiser
beer. This provides a complex surface on which the yeast can settle, so that it does not pile up, preventing yeast
autolysis
which would contribute off-flavours to the beer.
[
citation needed
]
Beech logs are burned to dry the
malt
used in German
smoked beers
.
[25]
Beech is also used to smoke
Westphalian ham
,
[26]
traditional
andouille
(an offal sausage) from Normandy,
[27]
and some cheeses.
Some
drums
are made from beech, which has a tone between those of
maple
and
birch
, the two most popular drum woods.
The textile
modal
is a kind of
rayon
often made wholly from reconstituted
cellulose
of pulped beech wood.
[28]
[29]
[30]
The European species
Fagus sylvatica
yields a tough, utility timber. It weighs about 720 kg per cubic metre and is widely used for furniture construction, flooring, and engineering purposes, in plywood and household items, but rarely as a decorative wood. The timber can be used to build chalets, houses, and log cabins.
[
citation needed
]
Beech wood is used for the stocks of military rifles when traditionally preferred woods such as
walnut
are scarce or unavailable or as a lower-cost alternative.
[31]
Food
[
edit
]
The edible fruit of the beech tree,
[2]
known as beechnuts or mast, is found in small burrs that drop from the tree in autumn. They are small, roughly triangular, and edible, with a bitter, astringent, or in some cases, mild and nut-like taste. According to the Roman statesman
Pliny the Elder
in his work
Natural History
, beechnut was eaten by the people of
Chios
when the town was besieged, writing of the fruit: "that of the beech is the sweetest of all; so much so, that, according to Cornelius Alexander, the people of the city of Chios, when besieged, supported themselves wholly on mast".
[32]
They can also be roasted and pulverized into an adequate
coffee substitute
.
[33]
The leaves can be steeped in liquor to give a light green/yellow liqueur.
Books
[
edit
]
In antiquity, the bark of the beech tree was used by
Indo-European people
for writing-related purposes, especially in a religious context.
[34]
Beech wood tablets were a common
writing material
in Germanic societies before the development of
paper
. The Old English
b?c
[35]
has the primary sense of "beech" but also a secondary sense of "book", and it is from
b?c
that the modern word derives.
[36]
In modern German, the word for "book" is
Buch,
with
Buche
meaning "beech tree". In modern Dutch, the word for "book" is
boek,
with
beuk
meaning "beech tree". In Swedish, these words are the same,
bok
meaning both "beech tree" and "book". There is a similar relationship in some Slavic languages. In
Russian
and
Bulgarian
, the word for beech is
бук
(
buk
), while that for "letter" (as in a letter of the alphabet) is буква (
bukva
), while
Serbo-Croatian
and
Slovene
use "
bukva
" to refer to the tree.
Other
[
edit
]
The pigment
bistre
was made from beech wood
soot
. Beech
litter
raking as a replacement for straw in
animal husbandry
was an old non-timber practice in forest management that once occurred in parts of
Switzerland
in the 17th century.
[37]
[38]
[39]
[40]
Beech has been listed as one of the 38 plants whose flowers are used to prepare
Bach flower remedies
.
[41]
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
a
b
c
d
Shen, Chung-Fu (1992).
A Monograph of the Genus
Fagus
Tourn. Ex L. (Fagaceae)
(PhD). City University of New York.
OCLC
28329966
.
- ^
a
b
Lyle, Katie Letcher (2010) [2004].
The Complete Guide to Edible Wild Plants, Mushrooms, Fruits, and Nuts: How to Find, Identify, and Cook Them
(2nd ed.). Guilford, CN:
FalconGuides
. p. 138.
ISBN
978-1-59921-887-8
.
OCLC
560560606
.
- ^
Denk, Thomas; Grimm, Guido; Hemleben, Vera (2005).
"Patterns of Molecular and Morphological Differentiation in
Fagus
(Fagaceae): Phylogenetic Implications"
.
American Journal of Botany
.
92
(6): 1006?16.
doi
:
10.3732/ajb.92.6.1006
.
JSTOR
4126078
.
PMID
21652485
.
- ^
Gomory, D.; Paule, L.; Brus, R.; Zhelev, P.; Tomovi?, Z.; Gra?an, J. (1999).
"Genetic differentiation and phylogeny of beech on the Balkan peninsula"
.
Journal of Evolutionary Biology
.
12
(4): 746?752.
doi
:
10.1046/j.1420-9101.1999.00076.x
.
S2CID
83666988
.
- ^
Denk, Thomas; Grimm, Guido; Stogerer, K.; Langer, M.; Hemleben, Vera (2002). "The evolutionary history of
Fagus
in western Eurasia: Evidence from genes, morphology and the fossil record".
Plant Systematics and Evolution
.
232
(3?4): 213?236.
Bibcode
:
2002PSyEv.232..213D
.
doi
:
10.1007/s006060200044
.
JSTOR
23644392
.
S2CID
33581227
.
- ^
Manos, Paul S.; Steele, Kelly P. (1997).
"Phylogenetic analysis of "Higher" Hamamelididae based on Plasid Sequence Data"
.
American Journal of Botany
.
84
(10): 1407?19.
doi
:
10.2307/2446139
.
JSTOR
2446139
.
PMID
21708548
.
- ^
"Fagus L. - Plants of the World Online"
.
Plants of the World Online
. 2022-05-07
. Retrieved
2023-04-24
.
- ^
a
b
"
Fagus
"
.
The International Fossil Plant Names Index
. Retrieved
6 Feb
2023
.
- ^
Tanai, T. "Des fossiles vegetaux dans le bassin houiller de Nishitagawa, Prefecture de Yamagata, Japon".
Japanese Journal of Geology and Geography
.
22
: 119?135.
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