City and community in Wales
City and community in Wales
Bangor
(
;
[1]
[2]
Welsh:
[?baŋ??r]
ⓘ
) is a
cathedral city
and
community
in
Gwynedd
,
North Wales
. It is the oldest city in Wales.
Historically
part of
Caernarfonshire
, it had a population of 15,100 at the
2021 census
.
[3]
[4]
Landmarks include
Bangor Cathedral
,
Bangor University
and
Garth Pier
. The
Britannia
and
Menai Suspension
bridges connect the city to the
Isle of Anglesey
.
History
[
edit
]
The origins of the city date back to the founding of a monastic establishment on the site of
Bangor Cathedral
by the
Celtic
saint
Deiniol
in the early 6th century AD.
'Bangor'
itself is an
old Welsh
word for a wattled enclosure,
[5]
such as the one that originally surrounded the cathedral site. The present cathedral is a somewhat more recent building and has been extensively modified throughout the centuries. While the building itself is not the oldest, and certainly not the biggest, the
bishopric
of Bangor is one of the oldest in the UK.
In 973,
Iago
, ruler of the
Kingdom of Gwynedd
, was usurped by
Hywel
, and requested help from
Edgar
, King of England, to restore his position. Edgar, with an army went to Bangor, and encouraged both Iago and Hywel to share the leadership of the realm. Asserting overall control however, Edgar confirmed liberties and endowments of the
Bishop of Bangor
, granting land and gifts. From 1284 until the 15th century, Bangor bishops were granted several charters permitting them to hold fairs
[6]
and govern the settlement, later ones also confirming them as
Lord of the Manor
.
[7]
Bangor remained a small settlement until the start of the 18th century, when a political desire to enhance communications between England and Ireland via the
London
-
Holyhead
-
Dublin
corridor saw it designated as a post town in 1718.
[7]
Growth was spurred by slate mining at nearby
Bethesda
, beginning in the 1770s by
Richard Pennant
, becoming one of the largest slate quarries in the world. The route between London and Holyhead was much improved by
Thomas Telford
building the
A5 road
, which runs through the centre of the city and over the
Menai Suspension Bridge
which was also completed by him in 1826.
Bangor railway station
opened in 1848.
A
parliamentary borough
was created in 1832 for Bangor, becoming a contributing
Caernarfon out borough
as its status grew due to further industry such as shipbuilding
[8]
as well as travel, not just from Telford's road, but through tourism mainly from Liverpool via
steamboat
.
[9]
It was also an
ancient borough
from earlier privileges granted to Bangor in medieval times,
[10]
but
an 1835 government report
investigating
municipal corporations
concluded that this status was defunct and in name only.
[11]
The borough was
reformed in 1883
into a
municipal borough
.
Friars School
was founded as a free
grammar school
in 1557, and the University College of North Wales (now
Bangor University
) was founded in 1884. In 1877, the former
HMS
Clio
became a school ship, moored on the Menai Strait at Bangor, and had 260 pupils. Closed after the end of hostilities of
World War I
, she was sold for scrap and broken up in 1919.
In
World War II
, parts of the
BBC
evacuated to Bangor during the worst of the
Blitz
.
[12]
The BBC continue to maintain facilities in the city (see
Media
).
City status
[
edit
]
Bangor has been unique outside of England in using the title of 'city' by ancient prescriptive right,
[13]
due to its long-standing cathedral and past privileges having been granted making it a borough.
[10]
Although by the early 1800s the city had a
vestry
overseeing the few remaining local duties, later government surveys of boroughs had established Bangor's
city corporation
had become extinct. Instead, the parliamentary borough (consitutency) of Bangor was made a
local board district
in 1850, with an elected local board to govern the city.
[14]
Over time the local board gained more powers for managing local affairs. By the 1870s these too were seen to be ineffective and enough local interest stimulated a desire to obtain a charter of incorporation, which was duly granted in 1883, re-establishing a municipal body.
[15]
[16]
This helped to preserve its ancient status; in 1927 a government list was drawn up detailing
which settlements were cities
, with Bangor being included as the only medieval Welsh city with extant rights.
[17]
In 1974 the borough was abolished. However, city status was reaffirmed by the Queen to the newly created
community council
area with new
letters patent
after local government reorganisation.
[18]
By means of various measures, it is also one of the smallest cities in the UK. Using 2011 statistics, comparing Bangor to:
- Population of city council areas in Wales, is third (18,322 residents)
[19]
with
St Davids
(1,841) and
St Asaph
(3,355)
- City council area size within Wales, is the second smallest city (2.79 square miles (7.2 km
2
)) behind St Asaph (2.49 square miles (6.4 km
2
))
- Urban areas
within Wales, is third placed (1.65 square miles (4.3 km
2
)) behind St Davids (0.23 square miles (0.60 km
2
)) and St Asaph (0.50 square miles (1.3 km
2
))
- City council area size within the UK, is fourth after the
City of London
(1.12 square miles (2.9 km
2
)),
Wells
and St Asaph
- Urban areas within the UK, is fifth placed
- Population of city council areas within the UK, is sixth.
Geography
[
edit
]
Bangor lies on the coast of
North Wales
near the
Menai Strait
, which separates the island of
Anglesey
from Gwynedd, the town of
Menai Bridge
lying just over the strait. The combined population of the two amounted to 22,184 at the 2011 census.
Bangor Mountain
at 117 metres (384 ft) lies to the east of the main part of the city, but the large
housing estate
of
Maesgeirchen
, originally built as
council housing
, is to the east of the mountain near
Port Penrhyn
. Another ridge rises to the north of the High Street, dividing the city centre from the south shore of the Menai Strait; this area is known as Upper Bangor (
Bangor Uchaf
).
The Bangor community area includes the suburbs of Garth and Hirael both immediately north of the city centre; Upper Bangor north west of the centre; West End, Glan-adda, Bryn Llwyd and Coed Mawr to the south west; Y Maes to the south; Glantraeth, Tan-y-bryn and Maesgeirchen are to the east. The suburbs of Penhros-garnedd, Treborth and Minffordd are within the community of
Pentir
adjoining the city to the south and south west.
Port Penrhyn
and the tiny estate of Plas-y-coed, adjoin the city within the
Llandygai
community.
Bangor has two rivers within its boundaries. The
River Adda
is a largely culverted watercourse which only appears above ground at its western extremities near the
Faenol estate
, whilst the
River Cegin
enters Port Penrhyn at the eastern edge of the city. Port Penrhyn was an important port in the 19th century, exporting the
slates
produced at the
Penrhyn Quarry
.
Governance
[
edit
]
Bangor lies within the
Arfon constituency
for elections to the
UK parliament
.
Arfon
is also the constituency for elections to the
Senedd
.
The
City of Bangor Council
serves the people of the city, created in 1974 following Bangor assuming city status.
[20]
Twenty councillors are elected from the eight
electoral wards
in the city, namely:
Deiniol
(2), Dewi (3), Garth (2),
Glyder
(3),
Hendre
(2), Hirael (2), Marchog (3) and Menai (3). In 2017 half of the seats were won by
Plaid Cymru
.
[21]
The city also elects eight county councillors to
Gwynedd Council
. In 2021,
Owen Hurcum
was unanimously elected as
mayor
, making history as the youngest-ever mayor in Wales at 22, as well as the first ever
non-binary
mayor of any UK city.
[22]
In 2012, Bangor was the first city in the UK to impose, throughout its city centre, a night-time curfew on under-16s. The six-month trial was brought in by Gwynedd Council and North Wales police, but opposed by civil rights groups.
[23]
Demography
[
edit
]
Bangor is ethnically diverse, with 85% of the population identifying as White British, followed by 8% Asian or Arab, 3% Mixed Race, 2% Black and 2% other ethnic. This makes Bangor 85% white and 15% non-white which means the city has one of the highest ethnicity populations in Wales for its population of over 15,000.
[24]
[25]
[3]
In religion,
Christianity
was followed by 8,816 residents,
Islam
followed by 892 residents, and 6,526 residents not identifying with any religion or identifying with other religions. Christianity is the most prominent religion but the second largest group followed no religion.
[24]
In 2021 Muslims in Bangor complained that restrictions imposed in the city had left women unable to worship at the mosque during Ramadan, while in other parts of Wales arrangements such as outdoor prayers had been made.
[26]
Transport
[
edit
]
Bangor railway station
is a stop on the
North Wales Coast Line
, between
Crewe
,
Chester
and
Holyhead
. Services are operated by
Transport for Wales
.
[27]
Bus services are provided predominantly by
Arriva Buses Wales
; routes connect the city with
Holyhead
,
Caernarfon
and
Llandudno
.
[28]
The
A5
runs through the centre of Bangor; it connects Holyhead,
Shrewsbury
and
London
. The
A55
runs immediately to the south of Bangor, providing a route to Holyhead and
Chester
.
The nearest airport with international flights is
Liverpool John Lennon Airport
, which is 83 miles (134 km) by road.
Bangor lies at the western end of the
North Wales Path
, a 60-mile (97 km) long-distance coastal walking route to
Prestatyn
. Cycle routes
NCR 5
,
NCR 8
and NCR 85 of the
National Cycle Network
pass through the city.
Culture
[
edit
]
Heritage and nature conservation
[
edit
]
The head office of
Gwynedd Archaeological Trust
is located on Garth Road.
[29]
The Trust was established in 1974, and carries out surveys, outreach and education, and excavations across
Gwynedd
and
Anglesey
.
The
North Wales Wildlife Trust
is also based on Garth Road, and manages the nature reserves at
Eithinog
and
Nantporth
.
[30]
Music and arts
[
edit
]
Classical music
is performed regularly in Bangor, with concerts given in the Powis and Prichard-Jones Halls as part of the university's Music at Bangor concert series. The city is also home to Storiel (the new name for the Gwynedd Museum and Art Gallery), which is located in
Bangor Town Hall
.
[31]
A new arts centre complex,
Pontio
, the replacement for Theatr Gwynedd, was scheduled for completion in the summer of 2014,
[32]
but the opening was delayed until November 2015.
[33]
Bangor hosted the
National Eisteddfod
in 1890, 1902, 1915, 1931, 1940 (through the medium of
radio
), 1943, 1971 and 2005, as well as an unofficial National Eisteddfod event in 1874.
Garth Pier
[
edit
]
Garth Pier
is the second longest
pier
in Wales, and the ninth longest in the British Isles, at 1,500 feet (460 m) in length. It was opened in 1893 and was a promenade pier, for the amusement of holiday-makers who could stroll among the pinnacle-roofed kiosks.
In 1914, the pier was struck by a vessel that had broken free of its moorings. The damaged section was repaired temporarily by the
Royal Engineers
, but when in 1922, a permanent repair was contemplated, it was found that the damage was more severe than had been thought. The repairs were made at considerable cost and the pier remained open until 1974 when it was nearly condemned as being in poor condition. It was sold for a nominal price to Arfon Borough Council who proposed to demolish it, but the
County Council
, encouraged by local support, ensured that it survived by obtaining
Grade II Listed building
status for it.
[34]
When it was listed that year, the British Listed Buildings inspector considered it to be "the best in Britain of the older type of pier without a large pavilion at the landward end".
[35]
Restoration work took place between 1982 and 1988, and the pier was re-opened to the public on 7 May 1988.
[34]
In November 2011, essential repair work was reported to be required, the cost being estimated at £2 million. A grant from the
Heritage Lottery Fund
was sought but the application was rejected.
[36]
Cathedral
[
edit
]
The Cathedral Church of St Deiniol is a
Grade I Listed building
and is set in a sloping oval churchyard. The site has been used for Christian worship since the sixth century but the present building dates from the twelfth century. It has a two-bay chancel, transepts, a crossing tower, a seven-bay nave and a tower at the west end.
[37]
Theatre
[
edit
]
The 344-seat Theatr Gwynedd was opened on Deiniol Road in 1975 by the university, and closed in 2008. The building was demolished in 2010.
[38]
Prior to Theatr Gwynedd, Bangor was home to the County Theatre, a converted chapel on Dean Street. The building was altered in 1912 for theatrical productions, and converted to use as a night club in 1986, currently named as "Trilogy Nightclub".
[39]
The Pontio Arts and Innovation Centre by Bangor University on Deiniol Road, opened in 2015, has a theatre and a one screen cinema.
The Archdeacon's House in Bangor was the setting for act 3, scene I of
William Shakespeare
's
Henry IV, Part 1
.
[40]
Cinemas
[
edit
]
Bangor once housed two cinemas.
The Electric Pavilion ? later Arcadia Cinema ? stood on the High Street close to the station from about 1910 to 1930. This site was redeveloped for The Plaza Cinema, which operated from 1934 to 2006.
[41]
A new building was built on the site and is now occupied by Ty Willis student accommodation and a
Domino's
branch.
The City Cinema opened in 1919, at 130?132, High Street. Building work started in 1914, but was likely delayed because of the war. The cinema closed in 1983, although the building is still there and is now occupied by a dance academy and a snooker club.
[42]
A one-screen cinema opened as part of the Pontio building in 2015.
Recreation
[
edit
]
Bangor has two King George V fields; these are located on Beach Road and Heol Dewi.
Retail trade
[
edit
]
A claim to fame is that Bangor has the longest
High Street
in Wales at 1.265 km (0.79 mi).
[43]
Bangor has a central shopping area around the High Street, and retail outlets on Caernarfon Road, on the outskirts of the city. One of these is St. David's Retail Park, built on the site of the demolished St David's maternity hospital.
In 1865, Morris
Wartski
, a refugee from the Tsarist pogroms, first established a jewellery business on Bangor's High Street, and then a drapery store. His son, Isidore, went on to develop the drapery business and to create a large, fashionable, store. He also redeveloped the Castle Inn on High Street in Bangor, which then became the high-class Castle Hotel. Wartski was a very popular mayor of the city and a great patron of local sports and charities. Wartski Fields were bequeathed to the city and people of Bangor by his widow, Winifred Marie, in memory of Isidore Wartski.
Welsh language
[
edit
]
Gwynedd
is the most
Welsh
-speaking county in Wales, with 65.4% of people saying they could speak it at the 2011 Census, although Bangor has been significantly more Anglicised than its hinterland and the rest of Gwynedd, mostly because of the large student population. While nearby towns in Gwynedd, such as
Bethesda
and
Caernarfon
were still 75?80% Welsh speaking in 2011,
[44]
Bangor was already only 53.4% Welsh speaking as early as 1971.
[45]
In 2011, only 36% of the population of Bangor said they could speak Welsh; a significant decrease from the 46% recorded at the 2001 Census.
[46]
[47]
In 2015, of primary school pupils 5 years and over, the following percentages spoke Welsh fluently at home:
[48]
- Ysgol Ein Harglwyddes ? < 3%
- Ysgol Cae Top ? < 3%
- Ysgol Hirael ? 10%
- Ysgol Glancegin ? 14%
- Ysgol Llandygai ? 17%
- Ysgol Y Faenol ? 23%
- Ysgol Y Garnedd ? 61%
The city has long been the most cosmopolitan settlement in Gwynedd, attracting incomers from both England and further afield, with
Bangor University
being a key institution. At the 2011 Census, 49.3% of Bangor's population was born outside Wales.
[46]
[47]
Nevertheless, Welsh was the majority vernacular of the city in the 1920s and 1930s; at the 1921 Census, 75.8% of Bangor's inhabitants could speak Welsh with 68.4% of those aged 3?4 being able to, indicating that Welsh was being transmitted to the youngest generation in most homes.
[49]
The 1931 Census showed little change, with 76.1% of the overall population being able to speak Welsh.
[50]
Education
[
edit
]
Bangor University
and
Coleg Menai
are located in the city. There are a few Secondary schools, these include
Ysgol Friars
,
Ysgol Tryfan
and St. Gerard's School. There are also a number of primary and infant schools.
Ysgol Y Faenol
,
Ysgol Y Garnedd
and
Ysgol Cae Top
are all primary schools.
Hospital
[
edit
]
Ysbyty Gwynedd
is located in Bangor in the suburb of Penrhosgarnedd. It has 403 beds, making it smaller than the other district general hospitals in
Betsi Cadwaladr University Health Board
(after
Wrexham Maelor Hospital
with 568 beds and
Glan Clwyd Hospital
near Rhyl with 424 beds.
[51]
The former Caernarfon and Anglesey General Hospital
[52]
operated from 1809 to 1984 in Upper Bangor, on the site now occupied by Morrisons supermarket.
Sport
[
edit
]
Bangor has a long-established
football
team,
Bangor City F.C.
which currently competes in the
Cymru North
, the second tier of Welsh football. Bangor City won the
Welsh Premier League
on three occasions (1994, 1995, 2011) and were continuous members of the league from its inception until 2018. Bangor City have also won the
Welsh Cup
eight times, most recently in
the 2010 competition
. Before 1992, they were members of the
English football pyramid
, peaking with the
Northern Premier League
title in 1982 and being
FA Trophy
runners-up in 1984. They have also competed in the
UEFA Cup Winners' Cup
three times (including its final season,
1998?99
, before being merged into the
UEFA Cup
),
UEFA Champions League
twice, and UEFA Cup five times, though they have not progressed far in any of the European competitions.
Fans wanting to protect football in the city, formed a breakaway club called
Bangor 1876 F.C.
in the summer of 2019 and on 19 June 2019, the FAW announced the new club had been accepted into the Gwynedd League for the 2019?20 season.
Bangor is also home to
rugby union
team
Bangor RFC
who play in the
WRU Division Two North
league. As well as the city's team, the university boasts a very competitive rugby union team, which won the title in its
BUCS
league in the 2015-16 season and also undefeated in 2022 and 2023. The university's rugby team shares a performance and development programme with Rygbi Gogledd Cymru (RGC), who are the regional representative club for the North Wales Rugby Development Region.
Media
[
edit
]
The Bangor Aye is an independent online news and information service for the city and surrounding area.
Bangor is home to a small
BBC
broadcasting centre, producing a large amount of output for
BBC Radio Cymru
. The studios are also the main North-West Wales newsroom for television, radio and on-line. The BBC's Light Entertainment Department moved to Bangor during World War II and many classic programmes (like
It's That Man Again
) came from Bangor.
Bangor was also previously home to two commercial radio stations,
Heart Cymru
(now Capital Cymru) (serving Anglesey and Gwynedd) and the now-defunct
Heart North Wales Coast
(now Capital North West and Wales) (serving the North Wales Coast), which shared studio facilities on the Parc Menai office complex ? the studios were closed in August 2010 after the stations were moved to
Wrexham
.
Bangor University
also has its own student radio station called
Storm FM
, which broadcasts to the
Ffriddoedd Site
and from their website.
In 1967,
The Beatles
came to Bangor
, staying in Dyfrdwy, one of the halls comprising Adeilad Hugh Owen (Hugh Owen Building), now part of the Management Centre, for their first encounter with
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi
, during which visit they learned of the death of their manager
Brian Epstein
.
[53]
[54]
On 24 February 2010 BBC Radio 1's
The Chris Moyles Show
announced Bangor as the location for Radio 1's
Big Weekend
concert festival. The morning show was broadcast on location from Bangor, with the announcement as well as a portion of the lineup being revealed. Big international acts such as
Rihanna
,
MGMT
,
Kesha
and
Alicia Keys
played as well as homegrown British acts like
Biffy Clyro
,
Pixie Lott
,
Cheryl Cole
,
Pendulum
and
Dizzee Rascal
.
The town is mentioned in the
Fiddler's Dram
1979 hit single "
Day Trip to Bangor
". The release was shrouded in controversy after reports that the song was actually inspired by a trip to nearby
Rhyl
, and there were rumours of an outcry among local councillors and businesses in Rhyl about the missed opportunity for tourism which would have been generated. Songwriter Debbie Cook stated that the song was specifically written about Bangor.
[55]
Bangor, Pennsylvania
[
edit
]
The
United States
town of
Bangor, Pennsylvania
in the
Lehigh Valley
region of eastern
Pennsylvania
draws its name from Bangor, Gwynedd. Bangor, Pennsylvania was settled around 1760 by Robert M. Jones, an emigrant from Bangor, Gwynedd who went on to be influential in the development of the town's
slate
industry. Slate quarries still exist in the small Pennsylvania town, but only a few are still functioning. A life-sized statue of Jones, dedicated on 24 September 1914, remains in the town centre.
[56]
The influence of Bangor, Gwynedd is visible in the stone walls, square gardens, flowers, and greenery that mirror those of its
Welsh
namesake. Also like Bangor, Wales, Bangor, Pennsylvania has piles of
slate
residue and shale reminiscent of the area.
[57]
Notable people
[
edit
]
- See
Category:People from Bangor, Gwynedd
- William Ambrose
(1813?1873), bardic name
Emrys
, poet and preacher.
- Brenda Chamberlain
(1912?1971), a Welsh artist, poet and writer.
- John Edward Daniel
(1902?1962), theologian, college lecturer and war-time chairman of
Plaid Cymru
.
- Richard Deacon
(born 1949), abstract sculptor, winner of the
Turner Prize
.
- Matthew Dent
(born 1981), graphic artist and designer of the redesigned 2008 British coinage.
- Duffy
(born 1984), singer-songwriter. First Welsh woman to achieve No. 1 in the
UK Singles Chart
since 1983.
- Endaf Emlyn
(born 1944), musician, film and TV director.
- Ren Gill
(born 1990), musician.
[
citation needed
]
- Mary Dilys Glynne
(1895?1991), plant pathologist and mountaineer.
- George Guest
(1924?2002), an organist and choral conductor.
- Owen Hurcum
(born 1997), politician, former Mayor of the city of Bangor; openly non-binary.
- Dylan Jones-Evans
(born 1966), professor and newspaper columnist
- Sian Lloyd
(born 1968), Welsh TV news presenter, works for BBC News
- Angus McDermid
(1920?1988), BBC News foreign correspondent.
- Owain Owain
(1929?1993), nuclear scientist, novelist, short-story writer and poet.
- Harry Parry
(1912?1956), jazz clarinetist and bandleader.
[58]
- Ben Roberts
(1950?2021), actor, played
C.I.
Derek Conway in the
ITV series
,
The Bill
.
- Sasha
(born 1969), DJ and record producer.
[59]
- Gwilym Simcock
(born 1981), pianist and composer, often blurring jazz and classical music
- Charles Warren
(1840?1927),
Royal Engineer
, archaeologist and Police Chief
- John Francon Williams
(1854?1911), editor, journalist, geographer, historian, cartographer and inventor; born in
Llanllechid
and lived in Bangor as a child.
Sport
[
edit
]
- Errie Ball
(1910?2014), golfer, played in first Masters Tournament in 1934.
[60]
- Nicola Davies
(born 1985), former football goalkeeper with 64 caps with
Wales women
- Wayne Hennessey
(born 1987), football goalkeeper with over 280 club caps and 108 for
Wales
.
- Owain Tudur Jones
(born 1984), footballer with 258 club caps and 7 for
Wales
.
- Robin McBryde
(born 1970), rugby union hooker with 37 caps for
Wales
- Sheila Morrow
(born 1947), President of Great Britain Hockey since 2017.
- Eddie Niedzwiecki
(born 1959), football goalkeeper with 247 club caps.
- Pat Pocock
(born 1946), former cricketer, played in 25
Test matches
- Rachel Taylor
(born 1983), rugby union player with 43 caps for and captain of
Wales women
- Alex Thomson
(born 1974), record-breaking solo around-the-world sailor.
- Marc Lloyd Williams
(born 1973), footballer,
Welsh Premier League
's top scorer, with 319 goals.
Twin towns
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
"bangor"
.
Dictionary.com Unabridged
(Online). n.d
. Retrieved
16 January
2024
.
- ^
"bangor"
.
CollinsDictionary.com
.
HarperCollins
. Retrieved
16 January
2024
.
- ^
a
b
UK Census
(2021).
"2021 Census Area Profile ? Bangor (Wales) community (W04000046)"
.
Nomis
.
Office for National Statistics
. Retrieved
25 February
2024
.
- ^
"Build a custom area profile - Census 2021, ONS"
.
www.ons.gov.uk
. Retrieved
25 February
2024
.
- ^
Wade-Evans, Arthur
.
Welsh Medieval Laws
.
Oxford Univ., 1909. Accessed 31 January 2013.
- ^
Myhill (web), Samantha Letters (content); Olwen (18 June 2003).
"Gazetteer of Markets and Fairs to 1516: Wales"
.
archives.history.ac.uk
.
{{
cite web
}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
link
)
- ^
a
b
"Bangor High Street Timeline"
.
www.bangorcivicsociety.org.uk
.
- ^
"Bangor (33003)"
.
Coflein
.
RCAHMW
.
- ^
"Bangor ? Gazetteers"
.
Genuki
.
- ^
a
b
Jones, G. (1988).
"Maenol Bangor: an ancient estate on the north-west fringe of Wales"
.
Hommes et Terres du Nord
.
1
: 56?60.
doi
:
10.3406/htn.1988.3051
.
- ^
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External links
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Principal settlements
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Towns and villages
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Education
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Castles and forts
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Rivers
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Islands
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Topics
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