Areas historically inhabited by Assyrians
The
Assyrian homeland
,
Assyria
(
Classical Syriac
:
????
,
romanized:
???r
or
Classical Syriac
:
??? ??????
,
romanized:
Beth Nahrin
), refers to the homeland of the
Assyrian people
within which Assyrian civilisation developed, located in their
indigenous
Upper Mesopotamia
. The territory that forms the Assyrian homeland is, similarly to the rest of
Mesopotamia
, currently divided between present-day
Iraq
,
Turkey
,
Iran
and
Syria
.
[3]
In Iran, the
Urmia Plain
forms a thin margin of the ancestral Assyrian homeland in the north-west, and the only section of the Assyrian homeland beyond the Mesopotamian region. The majority of Assyrians in Iran currently reside in the capital city,
Tehran
.
[4]
The
Assyrians
are indigenous Mesopotamians, descended from the
Akkadians
and
Sumerians
, who developed independent civilisation in the city of
Assur
on the eastern border of northern Mesopotamia. The territory that would encompass the Assyrian homeland was divided through the centre by the
Tigris River
, with their indigenous Mesopotamia on the west and western margins of the Urmia Plains, which they occupied in 2000 BCE prior to the arrival of the modern Iranians, to the east. In modern times, Assyrians largely only recognise Assyrian towns and cities immediately neighbouring the Tigris to the east as their indigenous territory, in addition to Mesopotamia,
[5]
[6]
with the homeland only expanding beyond the borders due to the major centres of Assyrian civilisation, such as the cities of
Nineveh
,
Assur
and
Nimrud
, being built on the banks of the Tigris itself.
Modern Assyrians are predominantly Christian, mostly adhering to the
East
and
West Syriac
liturgical rites of
Christianity
.
[7]
They speak
Neo-Aramaic
languages, most common being
Suret
and
Turoyo
.
[8]
History
[
edit
]
Ancient period
[
edit
]
The city of
A??ur
and
Nineveh
(modern-day
Mosul
), which was the oldest and largest city of the ancient Assyrian empire,
[9]
together with a number of other Assyrian cities, seem to have been established by 2600 BC. However it is likely that they were initially Sumerian-dominated administrative centres. In the late 26th century BC,
Eannatum
of
Lagash
, then the dominant
Sumerian
ruler in
Mesopotamia
, mentions "smiting
Subartu
" (Subartu being the Sumerian name for Assyria). Similarly, in
c.
the early 25th century BC,
Lugal-Anne-Mundu
the king of the Sumerian state of
Adab
lists Subartu as paying tribute to him.
[10]
Assyrians are eastern
Aramaic
-speaking, descending from pre-
Islamic
inhabitants of
Upper Mesopotamia
. The
Old Aramaic language
was adopted by the population of the
Neo-Assyrian Empire
from around the 8th century BC, and these eastern dialects remained in wide use throughout Upper Mesopotamia during the
Persian
and
Roman
periods, and survived through to the present day. The
Syriac language
evolved in
Achaemenid Assyria
during the 5th century BC.
[11]
[12]
During the Assyrian period
Duhok
was named Nohadra (and also
Bit Nuhadra'
or
Naarda
), where, during the
Parthian
-
Sassanid
rule in Assyria (c.160 BC to 250 AD) as
Beth Nuhadra
, gained semi-independence as one of a patchwork of
Neo-Assyrian
kingdoms in Assyria, which also included
Adiabene
,
Osroene
,
Assur
and
Beth Garmai
.
[13]
[14]
Early Christian period
[
edit
]
Syriac Christianity
took hold amongst the Assyrians between the 1st and 3rd centuries AD with the founding in Assyria of the
Church of the East
together with
Syriac literature
.
[15]
The first division between
Syriac Christians
occurred in the 5th century, when Upper Mesopotamian based Assyrian Christians of the
Sassanid Persian Empire
were separated from those in
The Levant
over the
Nestorian Schism
. This split owed just as much to the politics of the day as it did to theological orthodoxy.
Ctesiphon
, which was at the time the Sassanid capital, eventually became the capital of the
Church of the East
. During the Christian era Nuhadra became an
eparchy
within the
Assyrian Church of the East
metropolitanate of ?adyab
(
Erbil
).
[16]
After the
Council of Chalcedon
in 451, many Syriac Christians within the
Roman Empire
rebelled against its decisions. The Patriarchate of Antioch was then divided between a Chalcedonian and non-Chalcedonian communion. The Chalcedonians were often labelled 'Melkites' (Emperor's Party), while their opponents were labelled as
Monophysites
(those who believe in the one rather than two natures of Christ) and
Jacobites
(after
Jacob Baradaeus
). The
Maronite Church
found itself caught between the two, but claims to have always remained faithful to the
Catholic Church
and in communion with the
bishop
of
Rome
, the
Pope
.
[17]
Middle Ages
[
edit
]
Both Syriac Christianity and the Eastern Aramaic language came under pressure following the
Arab
Islamic conquest of Mesopotamia
in the 7th century, and Assyrian Christians throughout the Middle Ages were subjected to
Arabizing
superstrate
influence. The Assyrians suffered a significant persecution with the religiously motivated large scale massacres conducted by the Muslim
Turco-Mongol
ruler
Tamurlane
in the 14th century AD. It was from this time that the ancient city of
Assur
was abandoned by Assyrians, and Assyrians were reduced to a minority within their ancient homeland.
[18]
[19]
Upper Mesopotamia
had an established structure of dioceses by AD 500 following the introduction of Christianity from the 1st to 3rd centuries AD.
[20]
After the fall of the
Neo Assyrian Empire
by 605 BC Assyria remained an entity for over 1200 years under Babylonian, Achamaenid Persian, Seleucid Greek, Parthian, Roman and Sassanid Persian rule. It was only after the Arab-Islamic conquest of the second half of the 7th century AD that Assyria as a named region was dissolved.
The mountainous region of the Assyrian homeland,
Barwari
, which was part of the
diocese of Beth Nuhadra
(current day
Dohuk
), saw a mass migration of Nestorians after the
fall of Baghdad
in 1258 and
Timurlane
's invasion from central Iraq.
[21]
Its Christian inhabitants were little affected by the Ottoman conquests, however starting from the 19th century
Kurdish
Emirs
sought to expand their territories at their expense. In the 1830s Muhammad Rawanduzi, the Emir of
Soran
, tried to forcibly add the region to his dominion pillaging many Assyrian villages.
Bedr Khan Beg
of
Bohtan
renewed attacks on the region in the 1840s, killing tens of thousands of Assyrians in Barwari and
Hakkari
before being ultimately defeated by the
Ottomans
.
[22]
In 1552, a
schism
occurred within the
Church of the East
: the established "Eliya line" of patriarchs was opposed by a rival patriarch,
Sulaqa
, who initiated what is called the "Shimun line". He and his early successors entered into communion with the
Catholic Church
, but in the course of over a century their link with Rome grew weak and was openly renounced in 1672, when
Shimun XIII Dinkha
adopted a profession of faith that contradicted that of Rome, while he maintained his independence from the "Eliya line". Leadership of those who wished to be in communion with Rome passed to the Archbishop of Amid
Joseph I
, recognized first by the Turkish civil authorities (1677) and then by Rome itself (1681).
[23]
[24]
[25]
[26]
A century and a half later, in 1830, headship of the Catholics was conferred on
Yohannan Hormizd
. Yohannan was a member of the "Eliya line" family, but he opposed the last of that line to be elected in the normal way as patriarch, Isho?yahb (1778?1804), most of whose followers he won over to communion with Rome, after he himself was irregularly elected in 1780, as Sulaqa was in 1552. The "Shimun line" that in 1553 entered communion with Rome and broke it off in 1672 is now that of the church that in 1976 officially adopted the name "
Assyrian Church of the East
",
[27]
[28]
[29]
[30]
while a member of the "Eliya line" family is one of the patriarchs of the
Chaldean Catholic Church
.
For many centuries, from at least the time of
Jerome
(c. 347 ? 420),
[31]
the term "Chaldean" indicated the
Aramaic language
and was still the normal name in the nineteenth century.
[32]
[33]
[34]
Only in 1445 did it begin to be used to mean Aramaic speakers in
communion
with the
Catholic Church
, on the basis of a decree of the
Council of Florence
,
[35]
which accepted the profession of faith that Timothy,
metropolitan
of the Aramaic speakers in
Cyprus
, made in Aramaic, and which decreed that "nobody shall in future dare to call [...] Chaldeans, Nestorians".
[36]
[37]
[38]
Previously, when there were as yet no Catholic Aramaic speakers of Mesopotamian origin, the term "Chaldean" was applied with explicit reference to their "
Nestorian
" religion. Thus Jacques de Vitry wrote of them in 1220/1 that "they denied that Mary was the Mother of God and claimed that Christ existed in two persons. They consecrated leavened bread and used the 'Chaldean' (Syriac) language".
[39]
Until the second half of the 19th century the term "Chaldean" continued in general use for East Syriac Christians, whether "Nestorian" or Catholic:
[40]
[41]
[42]
[43]
it was the West Syriacs who were reported as claiming descent from
Asshur
, the second son of
Shem
.
[44]
Early modern period
[
edit
]
Peutinger's map
of the
inhabited world
known to the
Roman geographers
depicts
Singara
as located west of the
Trogoditi. Persi.
(
Latin
:
Troglodytae Persiae
, "
Persian
troglodytes
") who inhabited the territory around
Mount Sinjar
. By the medieval Arabs, most of the plain was reckoned as part of the province of
Diy?r Rab??a
, the "abode of the
Rab??a
"
tribe
. The plain was the site of the determination of the
degree
by
al-Khw?rizm?
and other
astronomers
during the reign of the
caliph
al-Mamun
.
[45]
Sinjar
boasted a famous
Assyrian
cathedral in the 8th century.
[46]
Syria and Upper Mesopotamia became part of the
Ottoman Empire
in the 16th century, following the conquests of
Suleiman the Magnificent
.
[47]
Modern period
[
edit
]
During World War I the Assyrians suffered the
Assyrian genocide
which reduced their numbers by up to two thirds. Subsequent to this, they entered the war on the side of the British and Russians. After World War I, the Assyrian homeland was divided between the
British Mandate of Mesopotamia
, which would become the
Kingdom of Iraq
in 1932, and the
French Mandate of Syria
which would become the
Syrian Arab Republic
in 1944.
[48]
[49]
[50]
[51]
Assyrians faced reprisals under the
Hashemite monarchy
for co-operating with the British during the years after World War I, and many fled to the West. The Patriarch
Shimun XXI Eshai
, though born into the line of Patriarchs at Qochanis, was educated in Britain. For a time he sought a homeland for the Assyrians in Iraq but was forced to take refuge in
Cyprus
in 1933, later moving to Chicago, Illinois, and finally settling near San Francisco, California.
[52]
The
Chaldean Christian
community was less numerous
[
citation needed
]
and vociferous at the time of the British Mandate of Mesopotamia, and did not play a major role in the British rule of the country. However, with the exodus of
Assyrian Church of the East
members, the Chaldean Catholic Church became the largest non-Muslim religious denomination in Iraq, and some Assyrian Catholics later rose to power in the Ba'ath Party government, the most prominent being Deputy Prime Minister
Tariq Aziz
. The Assyrians of Dohuk boast one of the largest churches in the region named the Mar Marsi Cathedral, and is the center of an Eparchy. Tens of thousands of
Yazidi
and Assyrian Christian refugees live in the city as well due to the
ISIS
invasion of Iraq in 2014 and the subsequent
Fall of Mosul
[53]
In addition to the Assyrian population, an
Aramaic speaking Jewish population
existed in the region for thousands of years, living mainly in
Barwari
,
Zakho
and
Alqosh
. However, all of the Barwari
Jews
either left or were exiled to
Israel
shortly after its independence in 1947. The region was heavily affected by the
Kurdish uprisings during the 1950s and 60s
and was largely depopulated during the
Al-Anfal campaign
in the 1980s, although some of its population later returned and their homes were subsequently rebuilt.
[54]
Assur
, which is in the
Saladin Governorate
, was put on
UNESCO
's List of
World Heritage
in danger in 2003, at which time the site was threatened by a looming large-scale dam project that would have submerged the ancient archaeological site.
[55]
Attacks on Christians
[
edit
]
Following the concerted attacks on Assyrian Christians in Iraq, especially highlighted by the Sunday, August 1, 2004, simultaneous bombing of six Churches (Baghdad and Mosul) and subsequent bombing of nearly thirty other churches throughout the country, Assyrian leadership, internally and externally, began to regard the Nineveh Plain as the location where security for Christians may be possible. Schools especially received much attention in this area and in Kurdish areas where Assyrian concentrated population lives. In addition, agriculture and medical clinics received financial help from the
Assyrian diaspora
.
[56]
As attacks on Christians increased in
Basra
,
Baghdad
,
Ramadi
and smaller towns more families turned northward to the extended family holdings in the Nineveh Plain. This place of refuge remains underfunded and gravely lacking in infrastructure to aid the ever-increasing internally displaced people population. From 2012, it also began receiving influxes of Assyrians from
Syria
owing to the
civil war
there.
[57]
[58]
In August 2014 nearly all of the non-Sunni inhabitants of the southern regions of the Plains, which include
Tel Keppe
,
Bakhdida
,
Bartella
and
Karamlesh
were driven out by the
Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant
during the
2014 Northern Iraq offensive
.
[59]
[60]
Upon entering the town, ISIS looted the homes, and removed the crosses and other religious objects from the churches. The Christian cemetery in the town was also later destroyed.
[61]
Assyrian
Bronze Age
and
Iron Age
monuments and archaeological sites, as well as numerous Assyrian churches and monasteries have been systematically vandalized and destroyed by ISIL. These include the ruins of
Nineveh
,
Kalhu
(
Nimrud
,
Assur
,
Dur-Sharrukin
and
Hatra
).
[62]
[63]
ISIL destroyed a 3,000 year-old Ziggurat. ISIL destroyed Virgin Mary Church, in 2015 St. Markourkas Church was destroyed and the cemetery was bulldozed.
[64]
Soon after the beginning of the
Battle of Mosul
Iraqi troops advanced on Tel Keppe, but the fighting continued into 2017.
[65]
[66]
Iraqi forces recaptured the town from ISIS on 19 January 2017.
[56]
Geography
[
edit
]
Climate
[
edit
]
Owing to its latitude and altitude, the Assyrian homeland is cooler and much wetter than most of Iraq. Most areas in the region fall within the
Mediterranean climate
zone (
Csa
), with areas to the southwest being
semi-arid
(
BSh
).
[67]
Climate data for
Tel Keppe
|
Month
|
Jan
|
Feb
|
Mar
|
Apr
|
May
|
Jun
|
Jul
|
Aug
|
Sep
|
Oct
|
Nov
|
Dec
|
Year
|
Mean daily maximum °C (°F)
|
12
(54)
|
14
(57)
|
20
(68)
|
26
(79)
|
34
(93)
|
38
(100)
|
43
(109)
|
40
(104)
|
38
(100)
|
30
(86)
|
20
(68)
|
14
(57)
|
27
(81)
|
Mean daily minimum °C (°F)
|
2
(36)
|
4
(39)
|
8
(46)
|
11
(52)
|
16
(61)
|
21
(70)
|
25
(77)
|
24
(75)
|
20
(68)
|
14
(57)
|
6
(43)
|
4
(39)
|
13
(55)
|
Average
precipitation
mm (inches)
|
39
(1.5)
|
69
(2.7)
|
51
(2.0)
|
9
(0.4)
|
0
(0)
|
0
(0)
|
0
(0)
|
0
(0)
|
0
(0)
|
6
(0.2)
|
36
(1.4)
|
60
(2.4)
|
270
(10.6)
|
Average precipitation days
|
10
|
10
|
11
|
9
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
5
|
8
|
12
|
65
|
Source: World Weather Online (2000-2012)
[68]
|
Climate data for
Zakho
|
Month
|
Jan
|
Feb
|
Mar
|
Apr
|
May
|
Jun
|
Jul
|
Aug
|
Sep
|
Oct
|
Nov
|
Dec
|
Year
|
Mean daily maximum °C (°F)
|
10.2
(50.4)
|
12.2
(54.0)
|
16.5
(61.7)
|
21.8
(71.2)
|
29.1
(84.4)
|
36.2
(97.2)
|
40.4
(104.7)
|
40.0
(104.0)
|
35.7
(96.3)
|
27.9
(82.2)
|
19.4
(66.9)
|
12.3
(54.1)
|
25.1
(77.3)
|
Mean daily minimum °C (°F)
|
1.9
(35.4)
|
3.1
(37.6)
|
6.1
(43.0)
|
10.1
(50.2)
|
15.0
(59.0)
|
20.1
(68.2)
|
23.7
(74.7)
|
23.2
(73.8)
|
19.2
(66.6)
|
13.7
(56.7)
|
8.4
(47.1)
|
3.9
(39.0)
|
12.4
(54.3)
|
Average
precipitation
mm (inches)
|
144
(5.7)
|
136
(5.4)
|
129
(5.1)
|
109
(4.3)
|
43
(1.7)
|
0
(0)
|
0
(0)
|
0
(0)
|
1
(0.0)
|
27
(1.1)
|
83
(3.3)
|
127
(5.0)
|
799
(31.6)
|
Source:
[69]
|
Demographics
[
edit
]
Assyrian populations are distributed between the Assyrian homeland and the
Assyrian diaspora
. There are no official statistics, and estimates vary greatly, between less than one million in the Assyrian homeland,
[3]
and 3.3 million with the diaspora included,
[70]
mostly due to the uncertainty of the number of Assyrians in
Iraq
and
Syria
. Since the 2003
Iraq War
, Iraqi Assyrians have been displaced into
Syria
in significant but unknown numbers. Since the
Syrian Civil War
began in 2011,
Syrian Assyrians
have been displaced into
Turkey
in significant but unknown numbers. The indigenous Assyrian homeland areas are "part of today's northern Iraq, southeastern Turkey, northwestern Iran and northeastern Syria".
[71]
The Assyrian communities that are still left in the Assyrian homeland are in
Syria
(400,000),
[72]
Iraq
(300,000),
[73]
Iran
(20,000),
[74]
[75]
and
Turkey
(15,000?25,100).
[74]
[76]
Most of the Assyrians living in
Syria
today, in the
Al Hasakah Governorate
in villages along the
Khabur river
, descend from refugees that arrived there after the
Assyrian genocide
and
Simele massacre
of the 1910s and 30s. Christian communities of
Oriental Orthodox Syriacs
lived in
Tur Abdin
, an area in Southeastern Turkey,
Nestorian Assyrians
lived in the
Hakkari
Mountains, which straddles the border of northern Iraq and Southern Turkey, as well as the
Urmia Plain
, an area located on the western bank of
Lake Urmia
, and
Chaldean
and
Syriac Catholics
lived in the
Nineveh Plains
, an area located in Northern Iraq.
[77]
More than half of
Iraqi Christians
have fled to neighboring countries since the start of the
Iraq War
, and many have not returned, although a number are migrating back to the traditional Assyrian homeland in the Kurdish Autonomous region.
[78]
Most Assyrians nowadays live in northern Iraq, with the community in
Northern (Turkish) Hakkari
being completely decimated, and the ones in Tur Abdin and Urmia Plain are largely depopulated.
[1]
Creation of an Assyrian autonomous province
[
edit
]
The Assyrian-inhabited towns and villages on the Nineveh Plain form a concentration of those belonging to Syriac Christian traditions, and since this area is the ancient home of the Assyrian empire through which the Assyrian people trace their cultural heritage, the Nineveh Plain is the area on which an effort to form an
autonomous Assyrian entity
has become concentrated. There have been calls by some politicians inside and outside Iraq to create an autonomous region for Assyrian Christians in this area.
[79]
[80]
In the
Transitional Administrative Law
adopted in March 2004 in Baghdad, not only were provisions made for the preservation of Assyrian culture through education and media, but a provision for an administrative unit also was accepted. Article 125 in Iraq's Constitution states that:
"This Constitution shall guarantee the administrative, political, cultural, and educational rights of the various nationalities, such as Turkomen, Chaldeans, Assyrians, and all other constituents, and this shall be regulated by law."
[81]
[82]
On January 21, 2014, the Iraqi government had declared that Nineveh Plains would become a new province, which would serve as a safe haven for Assyrians.
[83]
After the liberation of the Nineveh Plain from ISIL between 2016/17, all Assyrian political parties called on the
European Union
and
UN Security Council
for the creation of an Assyrian self-administered province in the Nineveh Plain.
[84]
Between the 28th-30 June 2017, a conference was held in
Brussels
dubbed,
The Future for Christians in Iraq
.
[85]
The conference was organised by the
European People's Party
and had participants extending from Assyrian/Chaldean/Syriac organizations, including representatives from the Iraqi government and the
KRG
. The conference was boycotted by the
Assyrian Democratic Movement
,
Sons of Mesopotamia
,
Assyrian Patriotic Party
,
Chaldean Catholic Church
and
Assyrian Church of the East
. A position paper was signed by the remaining political organizations involved.
[86]
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
a
b
The Origins of War: From the Stone Age to Alexander the Great By Arther Ferrill ? p. 70
- ^
Odisho, Devi (February 12, 2016).
"Canada and the Future of Assyria"
.
Foreign Policy Journal
. Retrieved
June 22,
2020
.
- ^
a
b
Carl Skutsch (2013).
Encyclopedia of the World's Minorities
. Routledge. p. 149.
ISBN
978-1-135-19388-1
.
- ^
Macuch, R. (1987). “ASSYRIANS IN IRAN i. The Assyrian community (???r??n) in Iran.”
Encyclopædia Iranica, II/8. pp. 817-822
- ^
"Assyrians: "3,000 Years of History, Yet the Internet is Our Only Home"
"
.
www.culturalsurvival.org
. 30 March 2022
. Retrieved
2022-11-06
.
- ^
"The Issue of An Assyrian Homeland"
.
Seyfocenter
. 2020-03-06
. Retrieved
2022-11-06
.
- ^
For Assyrians as a Christian people, see
- ^
Y Odisho, George (1998).
The sound system of modern Assyrian (Neo-Aramaic)
. Harrowitz. p. 8.
ISBN
3-447-02744-4
.
- ^
"Nineveh"
. Max Mallowan. 9 July 2023.
- ^
Bertman, Stephen (2003).
Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia
. Oxford University Press. p. 94.
ISBN
978-019-518364-1
. Retrieved 16 May 2015.
- ^
J. A. Brinkman (2001). "Assyria". In Bruce Manning Metzger, Michael David Coogan (ed.).
The Oxford companion to the Bible
. Oxford University Press. p. 63.
- ^
Biblical Archaeology Review May/June 2001: Where Was Abraham's Ur? by Allan R. Millard
- ^
Societe des etudes armeniennes, Fundacao Calouste Gulbenkian, Association de la revue des etudes armeniennes (1989).
Revue des etudes armeniennes, Volume 21
. pp. 303, 309.
{{
cite book
}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
link
)
- ^
NAARDA
, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography (1854)
- ^
Brock, Sebastian P.
(2005).
"The Syriac Orient: A Third 'Lung' for the Church?"
.
Orientalia Christiana Periodica
.
71
: 5?20.
- ^
Parpola, Simo.
"ASSYRIAN IDENTITY IN ANCIENT TIMES AND TODAY"
(PDF)
.
- ^
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