River in Central Asia
Amu Darya
Oxus, Wehr?d, d? ?mu Sind, Amu River
|
---|
|
Map of area around the Aral Sea. Aral Sea boundaries are
c.
2008
. The Amu Darya drainage basin is in orange, and the Syr Darya basin in yellow.
|
Etymology
| Named for the city of ?mul (now
Turkmenabat
)
|
---|
Native name
| |
---|
|
Countries
| |
---|
Region
| Central Asia
|
---|
|
|
Source
| Pamir River
/
Panj River
|
---|
• location
| Lake Zorkul
,
Pamir Mountains
,
Afghanistan
/
Tajikistan
|
---|
• coordinates
| 37°27′04″N
73°34′21″E
/
37.45111°N 73.57250°E
/
37.45111; 73.57250
|
---|
• elevation
| 4,130 m (13,550 ft)
|
---|
|
|
2nd source
| Kyzylsu River
/
Vakhsh River
|
---|
• location
| Alay Valley
,
Pamir Mountains
,
Tajikistan
|
---|
• coordinates
| 39°13′27″N
72°55′26″E
/
39.22417°N 72.92389°E
/
39.22417; 72.92389
|
---|
• elevation
| 4,525 m (14,846 ft)
|
---|
|
|
Source confluence
| Kerki
|
---|
• location
| Tajikistan
|
---|
• coordinates
| 37°06′35″N
68°18′44″E
/
37.10972°N 68.31222°E
/
37.10972; 68.31222
|
---|
• elevation
| 326 m (1,070 ft)
|
---|
|
Mouth
| Aral Sea
|
---|
• location
| Amudarya Delta,
Uzbekistan
|
---|
• coordinates
| 44°06′30″N
59°40′52″E
/
44.10833°N 59.68111°E
/
44.10833; 59.68111
|
---|
• elevation
| 28 m (92 ft)
|
---|
Length
| 2,400 km (1,500 mi)
|
---|
Basin size
| 534,739 km
2
(206,464 sq mi)
|
---|
|
Discharge
|
|
---|
• average
| 2,525 m
3
/s (89,200 cu ft/s)
[1]
|
---|
• minimum
| 420 m
3
/s (15,000 cu ft/s)
|
---|
• maximum
| 5,900 m
3
/s (210,000 cu ft/s)
|
---|
|
|
Tributaries
|
|
---|
• left
| Panj River
|
---|
• right
| Vakhsh River
,
Surkhan Darya
,
Sherabad River
,
Zeravshan River
|
---|
The
Amu Darya
,
[a]
also called the
Amu
, the
Amo
, and historically the
Oxus
(
Latin
:
?xus
;
Greek
:
?ξο?
,
Oxos
),
[2]
is a major river in
Central Asia
, which flows through
Tajikistan
,
Turkmenistan
,
Uzbekistan
and
Afghanistan
. Rising in the
Pamir Mountains
, north of the
Hindu Kush
, the Amu Darya is formed by the confluence of the
Vakhsh
and
Panj
rivers, in the
Tigrovaya Balka Nature Reserve
on the border between Afghanistan and
Tajikistan
, and flows from there north-westwards into the
southern remnants
of the
Aral Sea
. In its upper course, the river forms part of Afghanistan's northern border with Tajikistan,
Uzbekistan
, and
Turkmenistan
. In
ancient history
, the river was regarded as the boundary of
Greater Iran
with
Turan
, which roughly corresponded to present-day Central Asia.
[3]
The Amu Darya has a flow of about 70 cubic kilometres per year on average.
[4]
Names
[
edit
]
In
classical antiquity
, the river was known as the
?xus
in
Latin
and
?ξο?
(
Oxos
) in
Greek
? a clear derivative of
Vakhsh
, the name of the largest tributary of the river.
[5]
In
Sanskrit texts
, the river is also referred to as
Vak?u
(
?????
). The
Brahmanda Purana
refers to the river as
Chaksu
which means an eye.
[
citation needed
]
The
Avestan
texts too refer to the River as Yakhsha/Vakhsha (and Yakhsha Arta ("upper Yakhsha") referring to the
Jaxartes
/
Syr Darya
twin river to Amu Darya). In
Middle Persian
sources of the
Sasanian period
the river is known as
Wehr?d
[3]
(lit. 'good river').
The name
Amu
is said to have come from the medieval city of
?mul
, (later, Chahar Joy/Charjunow, and now known as
Turkmenabat
), in modern
Turkmenistan
, with
Darya
being the Persian word for "lake" or "sea". Medieval
Arabic
and
Islamic
sources call the river
Jayhoun
(
Arabic
:
????????????
,
romanized
:
Jay??n
; also
Jaihun
,
Jayhoon
, or
Dzhaykhun
) which is derived from
Gihon
, the
biblical name
for one of the four rivers of the
Garden of Eden
.
[6]
[7]
River Amu Darya passes through one of the world's highest deserts.
[8]
As the river Gozan
[
edit
]
Western travelers in the 19th century mentioned that one of the names by which the river was known in Afghanistan was
Gozan
, and that this name was used by Greek, Mongol, Chinese, Persian, Jewish, and Afghan historians. However, this name is no longer used.
[9]
- "Hara (
Bokhara
) and to the river of Gozan (that is to say, the Amu, (called the Oxus by Europeans )) ..."
[10]
- "the Gozan River is the River Balkh, i.e. the Oxus or the Amu Darya ..."
[11]
- "... and were brought into Halah (modern day
Balkh
), and Habor (which is Pesh Habor or
Peshawar
), and Hara (which is
Herat
), and to the river Gozan (which is the Ammoo, also called Jehoon) ..."
[12]
Description
[
edit
]
The river's total length is 2,400 kilometres (1,500 mi) and its drainage basin totals 534,739 square kilometres (206,464 sq mi) in area, providing a mean discharge of around 97.4 cubic kilometres (23.4 cu mi)
[1]
of water per year. The river is navigable for over 1,450 kilometres (900 mi). All of the water comes from the high mountains in the south where annual
precipitation
can be over 1,000 mm (39 in). Even before large-scale irrigation began, high summer evaporation meant that not all of this discharge reached the
Aral Sea
? though there is some evidence the large Pamir
glaciers
provided enough
meltwater
for the Aral to overflow during the 13th and 14th centuries.
Since the end of the 19th century, there have been four different claimants as the true source of the Oxus:
A glacier turns into the
Wakhan River
and joins the Pamir River about 50 kilometres (31 mi) downstream.
[13]
Bill Colegrave's expedition to Wakhan in 2007 found that both claimants 2 and 3 had the same source, the Chelab stream, which bifurcates on the watershed of the Little Pamir, half flowing into Lake Chamaktin and half into the parent stream of the Little Pamir/Sarhad River. Therefore, the Chelab stream may be properly considered the true source or parent stream of the Oxus.
[14]
The Panj River forms the border of
Afghanistan
and
Tajikistan
. It flows west to
Ishkashim
where it turns north and then north-west through the
Pamirs
passing the
Tajikistan?Afghanistan Friendship Bridge
. It subsequently forms the border of Afghanistan and Uzbekistan for about 200 kilometres (120 mi), passing
Termez
and the
Afghanistan?Uzbekistan Friendship Bridge
. It delineates the border of Afghanistan and Turkmenistan for another 100 kilometres (62 mi) before it flows into Turkmenistan at
Atamurat
. It flows across Turkmenistan south to north, passing
Turkmenabat
, and forms the border of Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan from Halkabat. It is then split by the
Tuyamuyun Hydro Complex
into many waterways that used to form the
river delta
joining the Aral Sea, passing
Urgench
,
Da?oguz
, and other cities, but it does not reach what is left of the sea any more and is lost in the desert. Use of water from the Amu Darya for
irrigation
has been a major contributing factor to the shrinking of the Aral Sea since the late 1950s. Historical records state that in different periods, the river flowed into the
Aral Sea
(from the south), into the
Caspian Sea
(from the east), or both, similar to the
Syr Darya
(Jaxartes, in
Ancient Greek
). Partly based on such records, first
Tsarist
and later
Soviet
engineers proposed to divert the Amu Darya to the Caspian Sea by constructing the
Transcaspian Canal
.
[15]
[16]
Watershed
[
edit
]
The 534,769 square kilometres (206,475 sq mi) of the Amu Darya
drainage basin
include most of Tajikistan, the southwest corner of
Kyrgyzstan
, the northeast corner of Afghanistan, a narrow portion of eastern Turkmenistan and the western half of Uzbekistan. Part of the Amu Darya basin
divide
in Tajikistan forms that country's border with China (in the east) and Pakistan (to the south). About 61% of the drainage lies within Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan, while 39% is in Afghanistan.
[17]
The abundant water flowing in the Amu Darya comes almost entirely from
glaciers
in the
Pamir Mountains
and
Tian Shan
,
[18]
which, standing above the surrounding arid plain, collect atmospheric moisture which otherwise would probably escape elsewhere. Without its mountain water sources, the Amu Darya would not exist?because it rarely rains in the lowlands through which most of the river flows. Of the total drainage area, only about 200,000 square kilometres (77,000 sq mi) actively contribute water to the river.
[19]
This is because many of the river's major tributaries (especially the
Zeravshan River
) have been diverted, and much of the river's drainage is arid. Throughout most of the steppe, the annual rainfall is about 300 millimetres (12 in).
[17]
[20]
History
[
edit
]
The ancient
Greeks
called the Amu Darya the
Oxus
. In ancient times, the river was regarded as the boundary between
Greater Iran
and
??r?n
(
Persian
:
??????
).
[3]
The river's drainage lies in the area between the former empires of
Genghis Khan
and
Alexander the Great
, although they occurred at very different times. When the Mongols came to the area, they used the water of the Amu Darya to flood
Konye-Urgench
.
[21]
One southern route of the
Silk Road
ran along part of the Amu Darya northwestward from
Termez
before going westwards to the
Caspian Sea
.
According to the Quaternary International, it is possible that the Amu Darya's course across the
Karakum Desert
has gone through several major shifts in the past few thousand years.
[22]
Much of the time ? most recently from the 13th century to the late 16th century ? the Amu Darya emptied into both the Aral and the Caspian Seas, reaching the latter via a large
distributary
called the
Uzboy River
. The Uzboy splits off from the main channel just south of the river's delta. Sometimes the flow through the two branches was more or less equal, but often most of the Amu Darya's flow split to the west and flowed into the Caspian.
People began to settle along the lower Amu Darya and the Uzboy in the 5th century, establishing a thriving chain of agricultural lands, towns, and cities. In about AD 985, the massive
Gurganj Dam
at the bifurcation of the forks started to divert water to the Aral.
Genghis Khan
's troops destroyed the dam in 1221, and the Amu Darya shifted to distributing its flow more or less equally between the main stem and the Uzboy.
[23]
But in the 18th century, the river again turned north, flowing into the Aral Sea, a path it has taken since. Less and less water flowed down the Uzboy. When Russian explorer Bekovich-Cherkasski surveyed the region in 1720, the Amu Darya did not flow into the Caspian Sea anymore.
[24]
By the 1800's, the ethnographic makeup of the region was described by
Peter Kropotkin
as the communities of "the vassal Khanates of Maimene, Khulm, Kunduz, and even the Badakshan and Wahkran."
[25]
An Englishman,
William Moorcroft
, visited the Oxus around 1824 during the
Great Game
period.
[26]
Another Englishman, a naval officer called
John Wood
, came with an expedition to find the source of the river in 1839. He found modern-day
Lake Zorkul
, called it Lake Victoria, and proclaimed he had found the source.
[27]
Then, the French explorer and geographer Thibaut Vine collected a lot of information about this area during five expeditions between 1856 and 1862.
The question of finding a route between the Oxus valley and India has been of concern historically. A direct route crosses extremely high mountain passes in the
Hindu Kush
and isolated areas like
Kafiristan
. Some in Britain feared that the Empire of Russia, which at the time wielded great influence over the Oxus area, would overcome these obstacles and find a suitable route through which to invade
British India
? but this never came to pass.
[28]
The area was taken over by Russia during the
Russian conquest of Turkestan
.
The
Soviet Union
became the ruling power in the early 1920s and expelled
Mohammed Alim Khan
. It later put down the
Basmachi movement
and killed
Ibrahim Bek
. A large refugee population of Central Asians, including Turkmen, Tajiks, and Uzbeks, fled to northern Afghanistan.
[29]
In the 1960s and 1970s the Soviets started using the Amu Darya and the Syr Darya to irrigate extensive
cotton
fields in the Central Asian plain. Before this time, water from the rivers was already being used for agriculture, but not on this massive scale. The
Qaraqum Canal
, Karshi Canal, and Bukhara Canal were among the largest of the irrigation diversions built. However, the
Main Turkmen Canal
, which would have diverted water along the dry Uzboy River bed into central Turkmenistan, was never built. In the course of the
Soviet?Afghan War
in the 1970s, Soviet forces used the valley to invade Afghanistan through
Termez
.
[30]
The Soviet Union fell in the 1990s and Central Asia split up into the many smaller countries that lie within or partially within the Amu Darya basin.
[31]
During the Soviet era, a resource-sharing system was instated in which
Kyrgyzstan
and
Tajikistan
shared water originating from the Amu and
Syr Daryas
with
Kazakhstan
,
Turkmenistan
, and
Uzbekistan
in summer. In return,
Kyrgyzstan
and
Tajikistan
received Kazakh, Turkmen, and Uzbek coal, gas, and electricity in winter. After the fall of the Soviet Union this system disintegrated and the Central Asian nations have failed to reinstate it. Inadequate infrastructure, poor water-management, and outdated irrigation methods all exacerbate the issue.
[32]
Siberian Tiger Introduction Project
[
edit
]
The
Caspian tiger
used to occur along the river's banks.
[33]
After its extirpation, the Darya's delta was suggested as a potential site for the introduction of its closest surviving relative, the
Siberian tiger
. A feasibility study was initiated to investigate if the area is suitable and if such an initiative would receive support from relevant decision makers. A viable tiger population of about 100 animals would require at least 5,000 km
2
(1,900 sq mi) of large tracts of contiguous habitat with rich prey populations. Such habitat is not available at this stage and cannot be provided in the short term. The proposed region is therefore unsuitable for the reintroduction, at least at this stage.
[34]
Since March 2022, the building of the 285km
Qosh Tepa Canal
has been underway in northern
Afghanistan
to divert water from the Amu Darya.
[35]
Uzbekistan
has expressed concern that the canal will have an adverse effect on its agriculture.
[36]
The canal is also expected to make the
Aral Sea
disaster worse, and in 2023 Uzbek officials held talks on the canal with the Taliban.
[37]
The Taliban has made the canal a priority, with images supplied by
Planet Labs
demonstrate that from April 2022 to February 2023, more than 100 km of canal was excavated.
[38]
According to the Taliban, the initiative is expected to convert 550,000 hectares of desert into farmland.
[38]
In January 2023, the
Xinjiang Central Asia Petroleum and Gas Company
(aka CAPEIC) signed a $720 million four-year investment deal with the
Taliban
government of
Afghanistan
for extraction on its side of the Amu Darya basin. The deal will see a 15% royalty given to the Afghan government over the course of its 25-year term.
[39]
[40]
[41]
[42]
[43]
[44]
[45]
[46]
[47]
The Chinese see this basin as the third-largest potential gas field in the world.
[47]
Literature
[
edit
]
The clashing noise of battle reached the sky
The blood of the
Bengalees
flowed like the river
Jaihun
.
~ Mirza Nathan describing a battle between the
Mughals
and
Musa Khan of Bengal
(translated by M. I. Borah)
The Oxus river, and Arnold's poem, fire the imaginations of the children who adventure with ponies over the moors of the West Country in the 1930s children's book
The Far-Distant Oxus
. There were two sequels,
Escape to Persia
and
Oxus in Summer
.
[49]
Robert Byron
's 1937 travelogue,
The Road to Oxiana
, describes its author's journey from the
Levant
through
Persia
to
Afghanistan
, with the Oxus as his stated goal, "to see certain famous monuments, chiefly the
Gonbad-e Qabus
, a tower built as a mausoleum for an ancient king."
[50]
George MacDonald Fraser
's
Flashman at the Charge
, (1973), places Flashman on the Amu Darya and the Aral Sea during the (fictitious) Russian advance on India during
The Great Game
period.
[
citation needed
]
But the majestic River floated on,
Out of the mist and hum of that low land,
Into the frosty starlight, and there moved,
Rejoicing, through the hushed
Chorasmian
waste,
Under the solitary moon: ? he flowed
Right for the polar star, past Orgunje,
Brimming, and bright, and large: then sands begin
To hem his watery march, and dam his streams,
And split his currents; that for many a league
The shorn and parcelled Oxus strains along
Through beds of sand and matted rushy isles ?
Oxus, forgetting the bright speed he had
In his high mountain-cradle in
Pamere
,
A foiled circuitous wanderer: ? till at last
The longed-for dash of waves is heard, and wide
His luminous home of waters opens, bright
And tranquil, from whose floor the new-bathed stars
Emerge, and shine upon the
Aral Sea
.
~
Matthew Arnold
,
Sohrab and Rustum
Panorama of Amu Darya River from 2016-04-06
See also
[
edit
]
Notes
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
a
b
Daene C. McKinney (18 November 2003).
"Cooperative management of transboundary water resources in Central Asia"
(PDF)
.
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on 2022-10-09
. Retrieved
2014-10-03
.
- ^
"Strabo, Geography, Book 11, chapter 7, section 4"
.
www.perseus.tufts.edu
.
- ^
a
b
c
B. Spuler,
?m? Dary?
, in
Encyclopædia Iranica
, online ed., 2009
- ^
Glantz, Michael H. (2005-01-01). "Water, Climate, and Development Issues in the Amu Darya Basin".
Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change
.
10
(1): 23?50.
doi
:
10.1007/s11027-005-7829-8
.
ISSN
1573-1596
.
S2CID
154617195
.
- ^
Page, Geology (2015-02-19).
"Amu Darya River"
.
Geology Page
. Retrieved
2021-05-28
.
- ^
William C. Brice
. 1981.
Historical Atlas of Islam (Hardcover)
. Leiden with support and patronage from Encyclopaedia of Islam.
ISBN
90-04-06116-9
.
- ^
"Amu Darya"
.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
.
- ^
"Amu Darya"
.
geography.name
. Retrieved
2020-07-16
.
- ^
"Afghanistan Virtual Jewish History Tour"
.
www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org
. Retrieved
2022-02-05
.
- ^
George Passman Tate,
The Kingdom of Afghanistan: a historical sketch
, p. 11
- ^
Moshe Gil; David Strassler,
Jews in Islamic countries in the Middle Ages
, p. 428
- ^
Michael Shterenshis,
Tamerlane and the Jews
, p. xxiv
- ^
Mock, J.; O'Neil, K. (2004),
Expedition Report
- ^
Colegrave, Bill (2011).
Halfway House to Heaven
. London: Bene Factum Publishing. p. 176.
ISBN
978-1-903071-28-1
. Archived from
the original
on 2018-11-06
. Retrieved
2018-11-06
.
- ^
Peterson, Maya K. (2019).
Pipe Dreams: Water and Empire in Central Asia's Aral Sea Basin
. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.
ISBN
978-1-108-46854-1
.
- ^
Kadyrov, Abrar (2011).
Дума о воде ? взгляд в былое и немного о будущем
(PDF)
(in Russian). Tashkent: Interstate Commission for Water Coordination of Central Asia
. Retrieved
4 April
2024
.
- ^
a
b
Rakhmatullaev, Shavkat; Huneau, Frederic; Jusipbek, Kazbekov; Le Coustumer, Philippe; Jumanov, Jamoljon; El Oifi, Bouchra; Motelica-Heino, Mikael; Hrkal, Zbynek.
"Groundwater resources use and management in the Amu Darya River Basin (Central Asia)"
(PDF)
.
Environmental Earth Sciences
.
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on 2022-10-09
. Retrieved
2010-02-09
.
[
dead link
]
- ^
"Basin Water Organization "Amudarya"
"
. Interstate Commission for Water Coordination of Central Asia. Archived from
the original
on 2004-06-18
. Retrieved
2010-02-11
.
- ^
Agaltseva, N.A.; Borovikova, L.N.; Konovalov, V.G. (1997).
"Automated system of runoff forecasting for the Amudarya River basin"
(PDF)
.
Destructive Water: Water-Caused Natural Disasters, their Abatement and Control
. International Association of Hydrological Sciences.
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on 2022-10-09
. Retrieved
2010-02-09
.
- ^
"Amudarya River Basin Morphology"
. Central Asia Water Information. Archived from
the original
on 2010-10-17
. Retrieved
2010-02-09
.
- ^
Sykes, Percy
(1921).
A History of Persia
. London: Macmillan and Company. p. 64.
- ^
Letolle, Rene; Micklin, Philip; Aladin, Nikolay; Plotnikov, Igor (October 2007).
"Uzboy and the Aral regressions: A hydrological approach"
.
Quaternary International
. 173?174: 125?136.
Bibcode
:
2007QuInt.173..125L
.
doi
:
10.1016/j.quaint.2007.03.003
.
- ^
Volk, Sylvia (2000-11-11).
"The Course of the Oxus River"
. University of Calgary. Archived from
the original
on 2009-12-23
. Retrieved
2010-02-08
.
- ^
Kozubov, Robert (November 2007).
"Uzboy"
.
Turkmenistan Analytic Magazine
. Retrieved
2010-02-08
.
- ^
Peter Kropotkin (1913).
"The Coming War"
. The Nineteenth Century: A monthly Review. Archived from
the original
on 2019-10-16
. Retrieved
2020-01-04
.
- ^
Peter Hopkirk,
The Great Game
, 1994, page 100
- ^
Keay, J. (1983)
When Men and Mountains Meet
ISBN
0-7126-0196-1
Chapter 9
- ^
See for example
Can Russia invade India?
by Henry Bathurst Hanna, 1895, (Google eBook), or
The Kafirs of the Hindu-Kush
, Sir George Scott Robertson, Illustrated by Arthur David McCormick, Lawrence & Bullen, Limited, 1896, (Google eBook)
- ^
Taliban and Talibanism in Historical Perspective, M Nazif Shahrani, chapter 4 of
The Taliban And The Crisis of Afghanistan
, 2008 Harvard Univ Press, edited by Robert D Crews and Amin Tarzi
- ^
Termez ? See the
Soviet?Afghan War
article
- ^
Pavlovskaya, L. P.
"Fishery in the Lower Amu Darya Under the Impact of Irrigated Agriculture"
.
Karakalpak Branch
. Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan
. Retrieved
2010-02-09
.
- ^
International Crisis Group. "
Water Pressures in Central Asia
Archived
2016-05-20 at the
Wayback Machine
",
CrisisGroup.org
. 11 September 2014. Retrieved 6 October 2014.
- ^
Heptner, V. G.; Sludskii, A. A. (1992) [1972].
Mlekopitaju??ie Sovetskogo Soiuza. Moskva: Vys?aia ?kola
[
Mammals of the Soviet Union, Volume II, Part 2
]. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution and the National Science Foundation. pp. 83?202.
ISBN
90-04-08876-8
.
- ^
Jungius, H., Chikin, Y., Tsaruk, O., Pereladova, O. (2009).
Pre-Feasibility Study on the Possible Restoration of the Caspian Tiger in the Amu Darya Delta
Archived
2016-10-22 at the
Wayback Machine
. WWF Russia
- ^
"Uzbekistan pursues dialogue with Afghanistan on fraught canal project"
. Eurasianet. 24 March 2023
. Retrieved
26 March
2023
.
- ^
Safarov, Ilyos (10 February 2023).
"
"Толибон"ни ?збекистон учун фожиали канални ?уришдан т?хтатиб б?ладими? ? экспертлар билан су?бат"
(in Uzbek). Kun
. Retrieved
26 March
2023
.
- ^
Duffy, Seamus (19 April 2023).
"What Afghanistan's Qosh Tepa Canal Means for Central Asia"
.
The Diplomat
. Retrieved
18 May
2023
.
- ^
a
b
"The Taliban are digging an enormous canal"
. The Economist. 16 February 2023
. Retrieved
26 March
2023
.
- ^
Hoyt, Conrad (6 January 2023).
"Chinese company signs oil extraction deal with Taliban"
. Washington Examiner.
- ^
"Times of India"
. Bennett, Coleman & Co. Bloomberg. 6 January 2023.
- ^
"Afghanistan's Taliban administration signs oil production deal with China"
. Verdict Media Limited. Offshore Technology. 6 January 2023.
- ^
Gul, Ayaz (5 January 2023).
"Taliban Seal Afghan Oil Deal With China"
. Voice of America.
- ^
Madhok, Diksha; Popalzai, Ehsan; Popalzai, Masoud (6 January 2023).
"A Chinese company has signed an oil extraction deal with Afghanistan's Taliban"
. Cable News Network. Warner Bros. Discovery.
- ^
Yawar, Mohammad Yunus (5 January 2023).
"Afghanistan's Taliban administration in oil extraction deal with Chinese company"
. Reuters.
- ^
"Afghanistan signs oil extraction deal with Chinese company"
. Al Jazeera Media Network. 6 January 2023.
- ^
Hoskins, Peter (6 January 2023).
"Taliban and China firm agree Afghanistan oil extraction deal"
. BBC.
- ^
a
b
SEIBT, Sebastian (10 January 2023).
"Pourquoi la Chine se laisse tenter par le petrole des Taliban"
(in French). France24.
- ^
Nathan, Mirza (1936). M. I. Borah (ed.).
Baharistan-I-Ghaybi ? Volume II
.
Gauhati
,
Assam
,
British Raj
:
Government of Assam
. p. 58.
- ^
"Oxus Series by Katharine Hull"
.
www.goodreads.com
. Retrieved
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.
- ^
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.
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. Retrieved
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.
Further reading
[
edit
]
- Curzon, George Nathaniel
. 1896.
The Pamirs and the Source of the Oxus
.
Royal Geographical Society
, London. Reprint: Elibron Classics Series, Adamant Media Corporation. 2005.
ISBN
1-4021-5983-8
(pbk;
ISBN
1-4021-3090-2
(hbk).
- Gordon, T. E. 1876.
The Roof of the World: Being the Narrative of a Journey over the high plateau of Tibet to the Russian Frontier and the Oxus sources on Pamir
. Edinburgh. Edmonston and Douglas. Reprint by Ch'eng Wen Publishing Company. Taipei. 1971.
- Toynbee, Arnold J
. 1961.
Between Oxus and Jumna
. London.
Oxford University Press
.
- Wood, John
, 1872.
A Journey to the Source of the River Oxus
. With an essay on the Geography of the Valley of the Oxus by Colonel Henry Yule. London: John Murray.
External links
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]
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