Class of ray-finned bony fishes
Actinopterygii
(
; from
actino-
'having rays', and
Ancient Greek
πτ?ρυξ
(pterux)
'wing, fins'), members of which are known as
ray-finned fish
or
actinopterygians
, is a
class
of
bony fish
[2]
that comprise over 50% of living
vertebrate
species.
[3]
They are so called because of their lightly built
fins
made of webbings of
skin
supported by radially extended thin bony
spines
called
lepidotrichia
, as opposed to the bulkier, fleshy lobed fins of the
sister
class
Sarcopterygii
(lobe-finned fish). Resembling
folding fans
, the actinopterygian fins can easily change shape and
wetted area
, providing superior
thrust-to-weight ratios
per movement compared to sarcopterygian and
chondrichthyian
fins. The fin rays attach directly to the proximal or basal skeletal elements, the radials, which represent the
articulation
between these fins and the internal skeleton (e.g., pelvic and pectoral girdles).
The vast majority of actinopterygians are
teleosts
. By
species
count, they dominate the
subphylum
Vertebrata
, and constitute nearly 99% of the over 30,000
extant
species of
fish
.
[4]
They are the most abundant
nektonic
aquatic animals
and are ubiquitous throughout
freshwater
and
marine
environments from the
deep sea
to
subterranean waters
to the highest
mountain streams
. Extant species can range in size from
Paedocypris
, at 8 mm (0.3 in); to the massive
ocean sunfish
, at 2,300 kg (5,070 lb); and to the giant
oarfish
, at 11 m (36 ft). The largest ever known ray-finned fish, the extinct
Leedsichthys
from the
Jurassic
, has been estimated to have grown to 16.5 m (54 ft).
Characteristics
[
edit
]
Ray-finned fishes occur in many variant forms. The main features of typical ray-finned fish are shown in the adjacent diagram.
The
swim bladder
is a more derived structure and used for
buoyancy
.
[5]
Except from the
bichirs
, which just like the
lungs
of
lobe-finned fish
have retained the ancestral condition of ventral budding from the
foregut
, the swim bladder in ray-finned fishes derives from a dorsal bud above the foregut.
[6]
[5]
In early forms the swim bladder could still be used for breathing, a trait still present in
Holostei
(
bowfins
and
gars
).
[7]
In some fish like the
arapaima
, the swim bladder has been modified for breathing air again,
[8]
and in other lineages it have been completely lost.
[9]
Ray-finned fishes have many different types of
scales
; but all
teleosts
have
leptoid scales
. The outer part of these scales fan out with bony ridges, while the inner part is crossed with fibrous connective tissue. Leptoid scales are thinner and more transparent than other types of scales, and lack the hardened
enamel
- or
dentine
-like layers found in the scales of many other fish. Unlike
ganoid scales
, which are found in non-teleost actinopterygians, new scales are added in concentric layers as the fish grows.
[10]
Teleosts and chondrosteans (sturgeons and paddlefish) also differ from the bichirs and holosteans (bowfin and gars) in having gone through a whole-genome duplication (
paleopolyploidy
). The WGD is estimated to have happened about 320 million years ago in the teleosts, which on average has retained about 17% of the gene duplicates, and around 180 (124?225) million years ago in the chondrosteans . It has since happened again in some teleost lineages, like Salmonidae (80?100 million years ago) and several times independently within the
Cyprinidae
(in goldfish and common carp as recently as 14 million years ago).
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
Body shapes and fin arrangements
[
edit
]
Ray-finned fish vary in size and shape, in their feeding specializations, and in the number and arrangement of their ray-fins.
Reproduction
[
edit
]
In nearly all ray-finned fish, the sexes are separate, and in most species the females spawn eggs that are fertilized externally, typically with the male inseminating the eggs after they are laid. Development then proceeds with a free-swimming larval stage.
[16]
However other patterns of
ontogeny
exist, with one of the commonest being
sequential hermaphroditism
. In most cases this involves
protogyny
, fish starting life as females and converting to males at some stage, triggered by some internal or external factor.
Protandry
, where a fish converts from male to female, is much less common than protogyny.
[17]
Most families use
external
rather than
internal fertilization
.
[18]
Of the
oviparous
teleosts, most (79%) do not provide parental care.
[19]
Viviparity
,
ovoviviparity
, or some form of parental care for eggs, whether by the male, the female, or both parents is seen in a significant fraction (21%) of the 422 teleost families; no care is likely the ancestral condition.
[19]
The oldest case of viviparity in ray-finned fish is found in
Middle Triassic
species of
†
Saurichthys
.
[20]
Viviparity is relatively rare and is found in about 6% of living teleost species; male care is far more common than female care.
[19]
[21]
Male territoriality
"preadapts"
a species for evolving male parental care.
[22]
[23]
There are a few examples of fish that self-fertilise. The
mangrove rivulus
is an amphibious, simultaneous hermaphrodite, producing both eggs and spawn and having internal fertilisation. This mode of reproduction may be related to the fish's habit of spending long periods out of water in the mangrove forests it inhabits. Males are occasionally produced at temperatures below 19 °C (66 °F) and can fertilise eggs that are then spawned by the female. This maintains genetic variability in a species that is otherwise highly inbred.
[24]
Classification and fossil record
[
edit
]
Actinopterygii is divided into the classes
Cladistia
and
Actinopteri
. The latter comprises the subclasses
Chondrostei
and
Neopterygii
. The
Neopterygii
, in turn, is divided into the infraclasses
Holostei
and
Teleostei
. During the
Mesozoic
(
Triassic
,
Jurassic
,
Cretaceous
) and
Cenozoic
the teleosts in particular
diversified
widely. As a result, 96% of living fish species are teleosts (40% of all fish species belong to the teleost subgroup
Acanthomorpha
), while all other groups of actinopterygians represent depauperate lineages.
[25]
The classification of ray-finned fishes can be summarized as follows:
- Cladistia, which include bichirs and reedfish
- Actinopteri, which include:
- Chondrostei, which include Acipenseriformes (paddlefishes and sturgeons)
- Neopterygii, which include:
- Teleostei (most living fishes)
- Holostei, which include:
- Lepisosteiformes (gars)
- Amiiformes (bowfin)
The
cladogram
below shows the main
clades
of living actinopterygians and their evolutionary relationships to other
extant
groups of
fishes
and the four-limbed vertebrates (
tetrapods
).
[26]
[27]
The latter include mostly terrestrial
species
but also groups that became
secondarily aquatic
(e.g.
whales and dolphins
). Tetrapods
evolved
from a group of
bony fish
during the
Devonian
period
.
[28]
Approximate
divergence
dates for the different actinopterygian clades (in
millions of years
, mya) are from Near et al., 2012.
[26]
The polypterids (bichirs and reedfish) are the
sister lineage
of all other actinopterygians, the Acipenseriformes (sturgeons and paddlefishes) are the sister lineage of Neopterygii, and Holostei (bowfin and gars) are the sister lineage of teleosts. The
Elopomorpha
(
eels
and
tarpons
) appear to be the most
basal
teleosts.
[26]
The earliest known
fossil
actinopterygian is
Andreolepis hedei
, dating back 420 million years (
Late Silurian
), remains of which have been found in
Russia
,
Sweden
, and
Estonia
.
[29]
Crown group actinopterygians most likely originated near the Devonian-Carboniferous boundary.
[30]
The earliest fossil relatives of modern teleosts are from the
Triassic
period
(
Prohalecites
,
Pholidophorus
),
[31]
[32]
although it is suspected that teleosts originated already during the
Paleozoic
Era
.
[26]
Chondrostei
|
|
Chondrostei
(cartilage bone)
is a subclass of primarily
cartilaginous
fish showing some
ossification
. Earlier definitions of Chondrostei are now known to be
paraphyletic
, meaning that this subclass does not contain all the descendants of their common ancestor. There used to be 52 species divided among two orders, the
Acipenseriformes
(
sturgeons
and
paddlefishes
) and the
Polypteriformes
(
reedfishes
and
bichirs
). Reedfish and birchirs are now separated from the Chondrostei into their own sister lineage, the
Cladistia
. It is thought that the chondrosteans evolved from bony fish but lost the bony hardening of their cartilaginous skeletons, resulting in a lightening of the frame. Elderly chondrosteans show beginnings of ossification of the skeleton, suggesting that this process is delayed rather than lost in these fish.
[33]
This group had once been classified with the
sharks
: the similarities are obvious, as not only do the chondrosteans mostly lack bone, but the structure of the jaw is more akin to that of sharks than other bony fish, and both lack
scales
(excluding the Polypteriforms). Additional shared features include
spiracles
and, in sturgeons, a heterocercal tail (the
vertebrae
extend into the larger lobe of the
caudal fin
). However the fossil record suggests that these fish have more in common with the
Teleostei
than their external appearance might suggest.
[33]
|
Neopterygii
|
|
Neopterygii
(new fins)
is a subclass of ray-finned fish that appeared somewhere in the Late
Permian
. There were only few changes during its evolution from the earlier actinopterygians. Neopterygians are a very successful group of fishes because they can move more rapidly than their ancestors. Their scales and skeletons began to lighten during their evolution, and their jaws became more powerful and efficient. While
electroreception
and the
ampullae of Lorenzini
is present in all other groups of fish, with the exception of
hagfish
, neopterygians have lost this sense, though it later re-evolved within
Gymnotiformes
and
catfishes
, who possess nonhomologous teleost ampullae.
[34]
|
Taxonomy
[
edit
]
The listing below is a summary of all
extinct
(indicated by a
dagger
, †) and living groups of Actinopterygii with their respective
taxonomic rank
. The
taxonomy
follows
Phylogenetic Classification of Bony Fishes
[27]
[35]
with notes when this differs from Nelson,
[3]
ITIS
[36]
and
FishBase
[37]
and extinct groups from Van der Laan 2016
[38]
and Xu 2021.
[39]
- Order †?
Asarotiformes
Schaeffer 1968
- Order †?
Discordichthyiformes
Minikh 1998
- Order †?
Paphosisciformes
Grogan & Lund 2015
- Order †?
Scanilepiformes
Selezneya 1985
- Order †
Cheirolepidiformes
Kazantseva-Selezneva 1977
- Order †
Paramblypteriformes
Heyler 1969
- Order †
Rhadinichthyiformes
- Order †
Palaeonisciformes
Hay 1902
- Order †
Tarrasiiformes
sensu Lund & Poplin 2002
- Order †
Ptycholepiformes
Andrews et al. 1967
- Order †
Haplolepidiformes
Westoll 1944
- Order †
Aeduelliformes
Heyler 1969
- Order †
Platysomiformes
Aldinger 1937
- Order †
Dorypteriformes
Cope 1871
- Order †
Eurynotiformes
Sallan & Coates 2013
- Class
Cladistia
Pander 1860
- Class
Actinopteri
Cope 1972 s.s.
- Order †
Elonichthyiformes
Kazantseva-Selezneva 1977
- Order †
Phanerorhynchiformes
- Order †
Bobasatraniiformes
Berg 1940
- Order †
Saurichthyiformes
Aldinger 1937
- Subclass
Chondrostei
Muller, 1844
- Subclass
Neopterygii
Regan 1923 sensu Xu & Wu 2012
- Order †
Pholidopleuriformes
Berg 1937
- Order †
Redfieldiiformes
Berg 1940
- Order †
Platysiagiformes
Brough 1939
- Order †
Polzbergiiformes
Griffith 1977
- Order †
Perleidiformes
Berg 1937
- Order †
Louwoichthyiformes
Xu 2021
- Order †
Peltopleuriformes
Lehman 1966
- Order †
Luganoiiformes
Lehman 1958
- Order †
Pycnodontiformes
Berg 1937
- Infraclass
Holostei
Muller 1844
- Clade
Teleosteomorpha
Arratia 2000 sensu Arratia 2013
- Order †
Prohaleciteiformes
Arratia 2017
- Division
Aspidorhynchei
Nelson, Grand & Wilson 2016
- Infraclass
Teleostei
Muller 1844 sensu Arratia 2013
- Order †?
Araripichthyiformes
- Order †?
Ligulelliiformes
Taverne 2011
- Order †?
Tselfatiiformes
Nelson 1994
- Order †
Pholidophoriformes
Berg 1940
- Order †
Dorsetichthyiformes
Nelson, Grand & Wilson 2016
- Order †
Leptolepidiformes
- Order †
Crossognathiformes
Taverne 1989
- Order †
Ichthyodectiformes
Bardeck & Sprinkle 1969
- Teleocephala
de Pinna 1996 s.s.
- Megacohort Elopocephalai
Patterson 1977 sensu Arratia 1999 (
Elopomorpha
Greenwood et al. 1966)
- Megacohort Osteoglossocephalai
sensu Arratia 1999
- Supercohort Osteoglossocephala
sensu Arratia 1999 (
Osteoglossomorpha
Greenwood et al. 1966)
- Supercohort Clupeocephala
Patterson & Rosen 1977 sensu Arratia 2010
- Cohort Otomorpha
Wiley & Johnson 2010 (
Otocephala
; Ostarioclupeomorpha)
- Subcohort Clupei
Wiley & Johnson 2010 (
Clupeomorpha
Greenwood et al. 1966)
- Subcohort Alepocephali
- Subcohort
Ostariophysi
Sagemehl 1885
- Section Anotophysa
(Rosen & Greenwood 1970) Sagemehl 1885
- Section Otophysa
Garstang 1931
- Order
Cypriniformes
Bleeker 1859 sensu Goodrich 1909 (
barbs
,
carp
,
danios
,
goldfishes
,
loaches
,
minnows
,
rasboras
)
- Order
Characiformes
Goodrich 1909 (
characins
,
pencilfishes
,
hatchetfishes
,
piranhas
,
tetras
,
dourado / golden (genus
Salminus
)
and
pacu
)
- Order
Gymnotiformes
Berg 1940 (
electric eels
and
knifefishes
)
- Order
Siluriformes
Cuvier 1817 sensu Hay 1929 (
catfishes
)
- Cohort Euteleosteomorpha
(Greenwood et al. 1966) (
Euteleostei
Greenwood 1967 sensu Johnson & Patterson 1996)
- Subcohort Lepidogalaxii
- Subcohort
Protacanthopterygii
Greenwood et al. 1966 sensu Johnson & Patterson 1996
- Subcohort Stomiati
- Subcohort
Neoteleostei
Nelson 1969
- Infracohort Ateleopodia
- Infracohort Eurypterygia
Rosen 1973
- Section Aulopa
[Cyclosquamata Rosen 1973]
- Section Ctenosquamata
Rosen 1973
- Subsection Myctophata
[Scopelomorpha]
- Subsection
Acanthomorpha
Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013
- Division Lampridacea
Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 [Lampridomorpha; Lampripterygii]
- Division Paracanthomorphacea
sensu Grande et al. 2013 (
Paracanthopterygii
Greenwood 1937)
- Division Polymixiacea
Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 (Polymyxiomorpha; Polymixiipterygii)
- Division Euacanthomorphacea
Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 (Euacanthomorpha sensu Johnson & Patterson 1993;
Acanthopterygii
Gouan 1770 sensu])
- Subdivision Berycimorphaceae
Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013
- Subdivision Holocentrimorphaceae
Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013
- Subdivision Percomorphaceae
Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 (
Percomorpha
sensu Miya et al. 2003;
Acanthopteri
)
- Series Ophidiimopharia
Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013
- Series Batrachoidimopharia
Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013
- Series Gobiomopharia
Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013
- Series Scombrimopharia
Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013
- Series Carangimopharia
Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013
- Subseries Anabantaria
Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2014
- Subseries Carangaria
Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2014
- Subseries Ovalentaria
Smith & Near 2012 (
Stiassnyiformes
sensu Li et al. 2009)
- Series Eupercaria
Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2014 (Percomorpharia Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013)
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In Nelson,
Polypteriformes
is placed in its own subclass
Cladistia
.
- ^
In Nelson and ITIS,
Syngnathiformes
is placed as the suborder Syngnathoidei of the order
Gasterosteiformes
.
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