Westernmost region of the African continent
West Africa
|
---|
|
Area
| 5,112,903 km
2
(1,974,103 sq mi) (
7th
)
|
---|
Population
| 418,544,337 (2021 est.) (
3rd
)
[1]
[2]
381,981,000 (female: 189,672,000; male: 192,309,000 (2017 est.
[3]
)
|
---|
Density
| 49.2/km
2
(127.5/sq mi)
|
---|
Demonym
| West African
|
---|
Countries
| |
---|
Dependencies
|
Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha
|
---|
Time zones
| UTC?1
to
UTC+1
|
---|
Major Regional Organizations
| Economic Community of West African States
(ECOWAS; established 1975)
|
---|
Total
GDP
(
PPP
)
| US$
2.091 trillion (2022) (
23rd
)
[4]
|
---|
GDP
(
PPP
) per capita
| $2,500 (2013)
[5]
|
---|
Total
GDP
(nominal)
| $810 billion (2023)
[6]
[7]
|
---|
Total
GDP
(nominal) per capita
| $1,937 (2023)
[6]
|
---|
Currency
| |
---|
Largest cities
| |
---|
UN M.49 code
| 011
? West Africa
202
?
Sub-Saharan Africa
002
?
Africa
001
?
World
|
---|
West Africa
or
Western Africa
is the westernmost region of
Africa
. The
United Nations defines
Western Africa as the 16 countries of
Benin
,
Burkina Faso
,
Cape Verde
,
The Gambia
,
Ghana
,
Guinea
,
Guinea-Bissau
,
Ivory Coast
,
Liberia
,
Mali
,
Mauritania
,
Niger
,
Nigeria
,
Senegal
,
Sierra Leone
, and
Togo
, as well as
Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha
(
United Kingdom Overseas Territory
).
[8]
[9]
The population of West Africa is estimated at 419 million
[1]
[2]
people as of 2021, and at 381,981,000 as of 2017, of which 189,672,000 were female and 192,309,000 male.
[3]
The region is demographically
[10]
and economically
[11]
one of the fastest growing on the African continent.
Early history in West Africa included a number of prominent regional powers that dominated different parts of both the coastal and internal trade networks, such as the
Mali
and
Gao Empires
. West Africa sat at the intersection of trade routes between
Arab
-dominated
North Africa
and further south on the continent, the source of specialized goods such as
gold
, advanced
iron-working
, and
ivory
. After European exploration encountered rich local economies and kingdoms, the
Atlantic slave trade
built on already existing slave systems to provide labor for colonies in the Americas. After the
end of the slave trade in the early 19th century
, European nations, especially
France
and
Britain
, continued to
exploit the region through colonial relationships
. For example, they continued exporting a number of
extractive goods
, including labor-intensive agricultural crops like
cocoa
and
coffee
, forestry products like
tropical timber
, and mineral resources like gold. Since independence, many West African countries, like
Ivory Coast
,
Ghana
,
Nigeria
and
Senegal
, have played important roles in the regional and global economies.
West Africa has a rich
ecology
, with strong
biodiversity
and several distinct regions. The area's climate and ecology are heavily influenced by the dry
Sahara
to the north and east, which provides dry winds during the
Harmattan
, as well as the
Atlantic Ocean
to the south and west, which provides seasonal monsoons. This mixture of climates gives West Africa a rich array of
biomes
, from biodiversity-rich
tropical forests
to
drylands
supporting rare and endangered fauna such as
pangolins
,
rhinoceros
, and
elephants
. Because of the pressure for economic development, many of these ecologies are threatened by processes like
deforestation
,
biodiversity loss
,
overfishing
,
pollution from mining
,
plastics
and other industries, and extreme changes resulting from
climate change in West Africa
.
History
[
edit
]
The history of West Africa can be divided into five major periods: first, its prehistory, in which the first
human
settlers arrived, developed
agriculture
, and made contact with peoples to the north; the second, the Iron Age empires that consolidated both intra-Africa, and extra-Africa trade, and developed centralized states; third, major polities flourished, which would undergo an extensive history of contact with non-Africans; fourth, the colonial period, in which
Great Britain
and
France
controlled nearly the entire region; and fifth, the post-independence era, in which the current nations were formed.
Prehistory
[
edit
]
West African populations were considerably mobile and interacted with one another throughout the
population history of West Africa
.
[12]
Acheulean tool-using
archaic humans
may have dwelled throughout West Africa since at least between 780,000 BP and 126,000 BP (
Middle Pleistocene
).
[13]
During the
Pleistocene
,
Middle Stone Age
peoples (e.g.,
Iwo Eleru people
,
[14]
possibly
Aterians
), who dwelled throughout West Africa between
MIS 4
and
MIS 2
,
[15]
were gradually replaced by incoming
Late Stone Age peoples
, who migrated into West Africa
[16]
as an increase in humid conditions resulted in the subsequent expansion of the
West African forest
.
[17]
West African hunter-gatherers
occupied western
Central Africa
(e.g.,
Shum Laka
) earlier than 32,000 BP,
[14]
dwelled throughout
coastal West Africa
by 12,000 BP,
[18]
and migrated northward between 12,000 BP and 8000 BP as far as Mali, Burkina Faso,
[18]
and Mauritania.
[19]
During the
Holocene
,
Niger-Congo
speakers independently created pottery in
Ounjougou
, Mali
[20]
[21]
[22]
? the earliest
pottery in Africa
[23]
? by at least 9400 BCE,
[20]
and along with their pottery,
[23]
as well as wielding independently invented
bows and arrows
,
[24]
[25]
migrated into the Central Sahara,
[23]
which became their primary region of residence by 10,000 BP.
[24]
The emergence and expansion of ceramics in the Sahara may be linked with the origin of Round Head and Kel Essuf rock art, which occupy rockshelters in the same regions (e.g.,
Djado
,
Acacus
,
Tadrart
).
[26]
Hunters in the Central Sahara farmed, stored, and cooked undomesticated central Saharan
flora
,
[27]
underwent domestication of
antelope
,
[28]
and
domesticated
and shepherded
Barbary sheep
.
[27]
After the
Kel Essuf Period
and
Round Head Period
of the Central Sahara, the
Pastoral Period
followed.
[29]
Some of the hunter-gatherers who created the Round Head rock art may have adopted pastoral culture, and others may have not.
[30]
As a result of increasing
aridification
of the
Green Sahara
, Central Saharan
hunter-gatherers
and cattle
herders
may have used seasonal waterways as the migratory route taken to the
Niger River
and
Chad Basin
of West Africa.
[31]
In 2000 BCE, "
Thiaroye
Woman",
[32]
also known as the "
Venus
of Thiaroye",
[33]
[32]
may have been the earliest
statuette
created in
Sub-Saharan
West Africa; it may have particularly been a
fertility
statuette, created in the region of
Senegambia
,
[33]
and may be associated with the emergence of
complexly organized
pastoral societies
in
West Africa
between 4000 BCE and 1000 BCE.
[34]
Though possibly developed as early as 5000 BCE,
[35]
Nsibidi
may have also developed in 2000 BCE,
[36]
[35]
as evidenced by depictions of the
West African script
on
Ikom monoliths
at
Ikom
, in
Nigeria
.
[35]
Migration of Saharan peoples south of the Sahelian region resulted in seasonal interaction with and gradual absorption of West African hunter-gatherers, who primarily dwelt in the
savannas
and
forests
of West Africa.
[18]
In West Africa, which may have been a major regional cradle in Africa for the
domestication
of crops and animals,
[37]
[38]
Niger-Congo speakers domesticated the
helmeted guineafowl
[39]
between 5500 BP and 1300 BP;
[37]
domestication of field crops occurred throughout various locations in West Africa, such as
yams
(d. praehensilis) in the Niger River basin between eastern Ghana and western Nigeria (northern Benin),
rice
(
oryza glaberrima
) in the
Inner Niger Delta
region of Mali,
pearl millet
(
cenchrus americanus
) in northern Mali and Mauritania, and
cowpeas
in northern Ghana.
[38]
After having persisted as late as 1000 BP,
[18]
or some period of time after 1500 CE,
[40]
remaining West African hunter-gatherers, many of whom dwelt in the
forest-savanna
region, were ultimately acculturated and admixed into the larger groups of West African
agriculturalists
, akin to the migratory
Bantu
-speaking agriculturalists and their
encounters
with
Central African hunter-gatherers
.
[18]
Empires
[
edit
]
The development of the region's economy allowed more centralized states and civilizations to form, beginning with
Dhar Tichitt
that began in 1600 B.C. followed by
Djenne-Djenno
beginning in 300 B.C. This was then succeeded by the
Ghana Empire
that first flourished roughly between the 2nd and 12th centuries C.E., which later gave way to the
Mali Empire
. In current-day Mauritania, there exist archaeological sites in the towns of
Tichit
and
Oualata
that were initially constructed around 2000 B.C., and were found to have originated from the
Soninke
branch of the
Mande peoples
. Also, based on the archaeology of the city of
Kumbi Saleh
in modern-day Mauritania, the Mali empire came to dominate much of the region until its defeat by
Almoravid
invaders in 1052.
Three great kingdoms were identified in
Bilad al-Sudan
by the ninth century. They included Ghana,
Gao
and
Kanem
.
[41]
The
Sosso Empire
sought to fill the void but was defeated (
c.
1240
) by the
Mandinka
forces of
Sundiata Keita
, founder of the new Mali Empire. The Mali Empire continued to flourish for several centuries, most particularly under Sundiata's grandnephew
Musa I
, before a succession of weak rulers led to its collapse under
Mossi
,
Tuareg
and
Songhai
invaders. In the 15th century, the Songhai would form a new dominant state based on
Gao
, in the
Songhai Empire
, under the leadership of
Sonni Ali
and
Askia Mohammed
.
Meanwhile, south of the Sudan, strong city-states arose in
Igboland
, such as the 10th-century
Kingdom of Nri
, which helped birth the arts and customs of the
Igbo people
,
Bono State
in the 11th century, which gave birth to the numerous
Akan
States, while
Ife
rose to prominence around the 12th century. Further east,
Oyo
arose as the dominant
Yoruba
state and the
Aro Confederacy
as a dominant
Igbo
state in modern-day Nigeria.
The Kingdom of Nri was a West African medieval state in present-day southeastern Nigeria and a subgroup of the Igbo people. The Kingdom of Nri was unusual in the history of world government in that its leader exercised no military power over his subjects. The kingdom existed as a sphere of religious and political influence over a third of Igboland and was administered by a priest-king called as an
Eze Nri
. The Eze Nri managed trade and diplomacy on behalf of the Nri people and possessed divine authority in religious matters.
The
Oyo Empire
was a
Yoruba
empire of what is today Western, North central
Nigeria
and southern
Republic of Benin
. Established in the 14th century, the Oyo Empire grew to become one of the largest West African states. It rose through the outstanding organizational skills of the Yoruba, wealth gained from trade and its powerful
cavalry
. The Oyo Empire was the most politically important state in the region from the mid-17th to the late 18th century, holding sway not only over most of the other kingdoms in
Yorubaland
, but also over nearby African states, notably the
Fon
Kingdom of Dahomey
in the modern
Republic of Benin
to the west.
The Benin Empire was a
post-classical
empire located in what is now southern
Nigeria
. Its capital was Edo, now known as
Benin City
,
Edo
. It should not be confused with the modern-day country called
Benin
, formerly called
Dahomey
. The Benin Empire was "one of the oldest and most highly developed states in the coastal hinterland of West Africa, dating perhaps to the eleventh century CE",. The Benin Empire was governed by a sovereign Emperor with hundreds of thousands of soldiers and a powerful council rich in resources, wealth, ancient science and technology with cities described as beautiful and large as
Haarlem
. "
Olfert Dapper
, a Dutch writer, describing Benin in his book
Description of Africa
(1668) ". Its craft was the most adored and treasured bronze casting in the history of Africa. It was annexed by the
British Empire
in 1897 during the invasion and scramble of Africa.
European contact and enslavement
[
edit
]
Portuguese traders began establishing settlements along the coast in 1445, followed by the
French
,
English
,
Spanish
,
Danish
and
Dutch
; the
African slave trade
began not long after, which over the following centuries would debilitate the region's economy and population.
[42]
The slave trade also encouraged the formation of states such as the
Bono State
,
Bambara Empire
and
Dahomey
, whose economic activities include but not limited to exchanging slaves for European
firearms
.
[43]
Colonialism
[
edit
]
In the early 19th century, a series of Fulani reformist
jihads
swept across Western Africa. The most notable include
Usman dan Fodio
's
Fulani Empire
, which replaced the
Hausa
city-states,
Seku Amadu
's
Massina Empire
, which defeated the Bambara, and El Hadj
Umar Tall
's
Toucouleur Empire
, which briefly conquered much of modern-day Mali.
However, the
French
and
British
continued to advance in the
Scramble for Africa
, subjugating kingdom after kingdom. With the fall of
Samory Ture's
new-founded
Wassoulou Empire
in 1898 and the
Ashanti
queen
Yaa Asantewaa
in 1902, most West African military resistance to colonial rule resulted in failure.
Part of the West-African regions underwent an increase in the
numeracy
level throughout the 19th century. The reason for such a growth was predetermined by a number of factors. Namely, the
peanut
production and trade, which was boosted by the
demand
of the
colonial states
. Importantly, the rise of the numeracy was higher in the regions which were less
hierarchical
and had less dependent from the
slavery
trade (e.g. Sine and Salum). Whereas areas with the opposite trends illustrated opposite tendencies (e.g. central and northern Senegal). Those patterns were further even more stimulated with the French colonial campaign.
[44]
Britain controlled the Gambia, Sierra Leone, Ghana, and Nigeria throughout the colonial era, while France unified Senegal, Guinea, Mali, Burkina Faso, Benin, Ivory Coast, and Niger into
French West Africa
.
Portugal
founded the colony of
Guinea-Bissau
, while
Germany
claimed
Togoland
, but was forced to divide it between France and Britain following
First World War
due to the
Treaty of Versailles
. Only
Liberia
retained its independence, at the price of major territorial concessions.
Postcolonial era
[
edit
]
Following
World War II
, nationalist movements arose across West Africa. In 1957, Ghana, under
Kwame Nkrumah
, became the first West African colony to achieve its independence, followed the next year by France's colonies (Guinea in 1958 under the leadership of President Ahmed Sekou Toure); by 1974, West Africa's nations were entirely autonomous.
Since independence, many West African nations have been submerged under political instability, with notable civil wars in Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Liberia, and Ivory Coast, and a succession of military coups in
Ghana
and
Burkina Faso
.
Since the end of colonialism, the region has been the stage for some brutal conflicts, including:
Geopolitical division
[
edit
]
Geopolitically
, the
United Nations definition
of
subregion
Western Africa includes the preceding states with the addition of
Mauritania
(which withdrew from ECOWAS in 1999), comprising an area of approximately 6.1 million square km.
[45]
The UN region also includes the
United Kingdom Overseas Territory
of
Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha
in the south
Atlantic Ocean
.
[8]
Area
[
edit
]
In the
United Nations
scheme of African regions
, the region of Western Africa includes 16
states
and the
United Kingdom Overseas Territory
of
Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha
:
[8]
Mali
,
Burkina Faso
,
Senegal
and the
Niger
are mostly in the
Sahel
, a transition zone between the
Sahara desert
and the
Sudanian Savanna
;
Benin
,
Ivory Coast
,
The Gambia
,
Ghana
,
Guinea
,
Guinea-Bissau
,
Liberia
,
Sierra Leone
,
Togo
and
Nigeria
compose most of
Guinea
, the traditional name for the area near the
Gulf of Guinea
;
Mauritania
lies in the
Maghreb
, the northwestern region of Africa that has historically been inhabited by West African groups such as the
Fulani
,
Soninke
,
Wolof
,
Serer
and
Toucouleur people
,
[46]
along with
Arab-Berber
Maghrebi people
such as the
Tuareg
;
Cape Verde
is an island country in the
Atlantic Ocean
; and
Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha
consists of eight main islands located in four different parts of the Atlantic. Due to Mauritania's increasingly close ties to the
Arab World
and its 1999 withdrawal from the
Economic Community of West African States
(ECOWAS), in modern times it is often considered, especially in Africa, as now part of western
North Africa
.
[47]
[48]
[49]
[50]
[51]
[52]
List of countries
[
edit
]
Cities
[
edit
]
Major and principal cities in West Africa include, geographically eastward:
Environment
[
edit
]
Nature
[
edit
]
Before
European colonisation
, West African countries such as those from the
Senegambia region
(Senegal and the Gambia) used to have a diverse
wildlife
including
lions
,
hippopotamus
,
elephants
,
antelopes
,
leopards
etc.
[53]
However, during colonization, the European colonizers such as the French and British killed most of the wildlife particularly the lions, using their body parts as trophies. By the turn of the 20th century, the Senegambia region had lost most of its lion population and other exotic animals due to
poaching
. By the 1930s, the Gambian elephant population became extinct. That phenomenon was not only limited to the Senegambia region but affected much of West Africa as the region lost much of its "natural resources once tied so closely to its cultural identity.
Poaching
has stolen most of its wildlife." The British issued poaching licenses, and although they would later try to reverse the damage that had been done by attempting to preserve what was left of the local wildlife, but by that time, it was too late.
[54]
[55]
During the 1930s, the elephant population in the
Gold Coast
was about 300, and Sierra Leone between 500 and 600. Although a small number of elephants survived in Nigeria, hunting,
agricultural expansion
and
clearing of forest in that country
drastically affected its wildlife population, particularly elephants.
[55]
Despite the historical damage that has been done to the region's wildlife populations, there are still some protected nature reserves within the region. Some of these include:
- The Bandia Nature Reserve in Senegal (French:
Reserve de Bandia
), animal life includes:
giraffes
,
zebras
,
rhinos
, a variety of antelopes,
buffaloes
,
monkeys
,
crocodiles
,
tortoises
. apes and a variety of exotic birds.
[56]
- The
Yankari National Park
in Nigeria, animal life includes: the
African bush elephant
,
olive baboon
,
patas monkey
,
Tantalus monkey
,
roan antelope
,
western hartebeest
,
West African lion
,
African buffalo
,
waterbuck
,
bushbuck
and
hippopotamus
.
[57]
- The
Ankasa Conservation Area
in Ghana, animal life includes: the elephant,
bongo
, leopard,
chimpanzee
,
Diana monkey
, and other primates.
[58]
- The
Mole National Park
is Ghana's biggest wildlife refuge. It is home to over 83 mammal species including about 800 resident elephants, buffalo, hippos, and warthogs
[59]
[60]
as well as various fauna and flora.
West Africa is also home to several
baobab
trees and other
plant life
. Some baobab trees are several centuries old and form part of the local folklore, for example, a mythical baobab tree named
Ngoye njuli
in Senegal which is regarded as a sacred site by the
Serer
. The tree itself is rather majestic and looks like a huge
phallus
and a deformed animal or thing is protruding from it. It is said to be the dwelling place of a
pangool
. Ngoye njuli is protected by the Senegalese authorities and attracts visitors. In West Africa, as in other parts of Africa where the baobab tree is found, the leaves are mixed with couscous and eaten, the bark of the tree is used to make ropes, and the fruit and seeds used for drinks and oils.
[54]
[61]
[62]
Deforestation
[
edit
]
West Africa is greatly affected by
deforestation
and has one of worst deforestation rate.
[63]
Even "the beloved baobab tree" which is viewed as sacred by some West African cultures are under threat due to
climate change
,
urbanization
and population growth. "Huge swaths of forest are being razed to clear space for palm oil and cocoa plantations. Mangroves are being killed off by pollution. Even wispy
acacias
are hacked away for use in cooking fires to feed growing families."
[54]
Nigeria, Liberia, Guinea, Ghana and the Ivory Coast, have lost large areas of their
rainforest
.
[64]
[65]
In 2005, the
Food and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations ranked
Nigeria as the state with the worst deforestation rate
in the entire world. Causes include logging,
subsistence agriculture
, and the collection of fuelwoods.
[66]
According to a
ThoughtCo
publication authored Steve Nix (2018), almost 90 percent of West Africa's original rainforest has been destroyed, and the rest "heavily fragmented and in a degraded state, being poorly used."
[63]
Overfishing
[
edit
]
Overfishing
is a major issue in West Africa. Besides reducing fish stocks in the region, it also threatens
food security
and the livelihoods of many coastal communities who largely depend on
artisanal fishing
. The overfishing generally comes from
foreign trawlers
operating in the region.
[67]
To combat the overfishing,
Greenpeace
has recommended countries reduce the number of registered trawlers operating in African waters, increase the monitoring and control and set up regional fisheries organizations.
[68]
Some steps have already been taken in the form of
WARFP
(the World Bank's West Africa Regional Fisheries Program which empowers west-African countries (i.e. Liberia, Sierra Leone, Cape Verde, and Senegal) with information, training and monitoring systems. Furthermore, Liberia enacted a fisheries regulations Act in 2010
[69]
and installed a satellite-based monitoring system and Senegal enacted a fisheries code in 2015. In Cape Verde, the fishermen communities of Palmiera and Santa Maria have organized themselves to protect fishing zones. Mozambique finally created a
conservation
area, including a coastline.
[70]
[71]
Geography and climate
[
edit
]
West Africa, broadly defined to include the western portion of the
Maghreb
(
Western Sahara
,
Morocco
,
Algeria
, and
Tunisia
), occupies an area in excess of 6,140,000 km
2
, or approximately one-fifth of Africa. The vast majority of this land is plains lying less than 300 meters above sea level, though isolated high points exist in numerous states along the southern shore of West Africa.
[72]
The northern section of West Africa (narrowly defined to exclude the western Maghreb) is composed of semi-arid terrain known as
Sahel
, a transitional zone between the Sahara and the
West Sudanian savanna
.
Forests
form a belt between the savannas and the southern coast, ranging from 160 km to 240 km in width.
[73]
The northwest African region of
Mauritania
periodically suffers country-wide plagues of
locusts
which consume water, salt and crops on which the human population relies.
[74]
Background
[
edit
]
West Africa is west of an imagined north?south axis lying close to
10° east longitude
.
[72]
The Atlantic
Ocean
forms the western as well as the southern borders of the West African region.
[72]
The northern border is the
Sahara Desert
, with the Ranishanu Bend generally considered the northernmost part of the region.
[75]
The eastern border is less precise, with some placing it at the
Benue Trough
, and others on a line running from
Mount Cameroon
to
Lake Chad
.
Colonial boundaries are reflected in the modern boundaries between contemporary West African states, cutting across ethnic and cultural lines, often dividing single ethnic groups between two or more states.
[76]
In contrast to most of Central, Southern, and Southeast Africa, West Africa is not populated by
Bantu
-speaking peoples.
[77]
Climate change
[
edit
]
The West African region can be divided into four climatic sub-regions namely the Guinea Coast, Soudano-Sahel, Sahel (extending eastward to the Ethiopian border) and the Sahara,
[78]
each with different climatic conditions. The seasonal cycle of rainfall is mainly driven by the south-north movement of the
Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone
(ITCZ) which is characterised by the confluence between moist southwesterly monsoon winds and the dry northeasterly Harmattan.
[79]
Based on the inter-annual rainfall variability, three main climatic periods have been observed over the Sahel: the wet period from 1950 to the early 1960s followed by a dry period from 1972 to 1990 and then the period from 1991 onwards which has seen a partial rainfall recovery.
[80]
[81]
[82]
During the dry period, the Sahel experienced a number of particularly severe drought events, with devastating effects.
[83]
[84]
The recent decades, have also witnessed a moderate increment in annual rainfall since the beginning of 1990s. However, total annual rainfall remains significantly below that observed during the 1950s.
[85]
[83]
Some have identified the two recent decades as a recovery period.
[86]
Others refer to this as a period of "hydrological intensification" with much of the annual rainfall increase coming from more severe rain events and sometimes flooding rather than more frequent rainfall, or similarly other works
[87]
[88]
underline the continuity of the drought even though the rainfall has increased. Since 1985, 54 percent of the population has been affected by five or more floods in the 17 Sahel region countries.
[89]
In 2012, severe
drought conditions
in the Sahel were reported. Governments in the region responded quickly, launching strategies to address the issue.
[90]
The region is projected to experience changes in rainfall regime, with climate models suggesting that decreases in wet season rainfall are more likely in the western Sahel, and increases more likely in the central to east Sahel, although opposite trends cannot yet be ruled out.
[91]
[92]
[93]
These trends will affect the frequency and severity of floods, droughts,
desertification
, sand and dust storms, desert locust plagues and water shortages.
[94]
[95]
However, irrespective of the changes in seasonal mean rain, the most intense storms are expected to become more intense, amplifying flood frequency.
[96]
[97]
Enhanced carbon emissions and global warming may also lead to an increase in dry spells especially across the Guinea Coast associated with a reduction of the wet spells under both 1.5 °C and 2 °C global warming level.
[98]
Fifteen percent of
Sahel
region population has also experienced a temperature increase of more than 1 °C from 1970 to 2010. The Sahel region, in particular, will experience higher average temperatures over the course of the 21st century and changes in rainfall patterns, according to the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC).
Transport
[
edit
]
Rail transport
[
edit
]
A Trans-ECOWAS project, established in 2007, plans to upgrade railways in this zone. One of the goals of the
Economic Community of West African States
(ECOWAS) is the development of an integrated
railroad
network.
[99]
Aims include the extension of railways in member countries, the interconnection of previously isolated railways and the standardization of gauge, brakes, couplings, and other parameters. The first line would connect the cities and ports of
Lagos
,
Cotonou
,
Lome
and
Accra
and would allow the largest container ships to focus on a smaller number of large ports, while efficiently serving a larger
hinterland
. This line connects
3 ft 6 in
(
1,067 mm
) gauge and
1,000 mm
(
3 ft
3
+
3
⁄
8
in
)
metre gauge
systems, which would require four rail
dual gauge
, which can also provide
standard gauge
.
[99]
Road transport
[
edit
]
The
Trans?West African Coastal Highway
is a transnational
highway
project to link 12 West African coastal states, from
Mauritania
in the north-west of the region to
Nigeria
[100]
in the east, with feeder roads already existing to two landlocked countries,
Mali
and
Burkina Faso
.
[101]
The eastern end of the highway terminates at
Lagos
,
Nigeria
.
[100]
Economic Community of West African States
(ECOWAS) consider its western end to be
Nouakchott
,
Mauritania
, or to be
Dakar
,
Senegal
, giving rise to these alternative names for the road:
- Nouakchott?Lagos Highway
- Lagos?Nouakchott Highway
- Dakar?Lagos Highway
- Lagos?Dakar Highway
- Trans-African Highway 7 in the
Trans-African Highway
network
Air transport
[
edit
]
The capitals' airports include:
- Cadjehoun Airport
(COO) International; Cotonou, Benin
- Ouagadougou Airport
(OUA); Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
- Amilcar Cabral International Airport
(SID); Praia, Cape Verde
- Banjul International Airport
(BJL) International; Banjul, Gambia
- Kotoka International Airport
(ACC); Accra; Ghana
- Conakry International Airport
(CKY); Conakry, Guinea
- Osvaldo Vieira International Airport
(OXB); Bissau, Guinea-Bissau
- Port Bouet Airport
(ABJ); Abidjan, Ivory Coast
- Roberts International Airport
(ROB); Monrovia, Liberia
- Bamako?Senou International Airport
(BKO); Bamako, Mali
- Nouakchott?Oumtounsy International Airport
(NKC); Nouakchott, Mauritania
- Diori Hamani International Airport
(NIM); Niamey, Niger
- Murtala Muhammed International Airport
(LOS); Lagos, Nigeria
- Saint Helena Airport
; Jamestown, Saint Helena
- Blaise Diagne International Airport
(DSS); Dakar, Senegal
- Lungi International Airport
(FNA); Freetown, Sierra Leone
- Lome?Tokoin Airport
(LFW); Lome, Togo
Of the sixteen, the most important hub and entry point to West Africa are
Kotoka International Airport
, and
Murtala Muhammed International Airport
, offering many international connections.
Health
[
edit
]
West Africa has made considerably improvement in the health outcomes of its populations, in spite of the challenges posed by pervasive poverty, epidemic diseases, and food insecurity. The traditional communicable diseases of HIV/AIDS, malaria, and tuberculosis are still the major reasons of mortality. Primary health care is the best answer to curing diseases, as it provides the basic preventive strategies as it reduce the rate of child and maternal morbidity and mortality?two of the most preventable outcomes that can prolong life expectancy at birth.
[102]
Recently, mental health problems are on the rise in West Africa, as they are in many other world regions. However, the subject is largely a taboo, and professional treatment is still rare.
[103]
Culture
[
edit
]
Despite the wide variety of cultures in West Africa, from
Nigeria
through to
Senegal
, there are general similarities in
dress
,
cuisine
,
music
and culture that are not shared extensively with groups outside the geographic region. This long history of cultural exchange predates the colonization era of the region and can be approximately placed at the time of the
Ghana Empire
(proper:
Wagadou
Empire),
Mali Empire
or perhaps before these empires. West Africa varies a series of tribes and cultures that have combined a diverse regional subculture.
[
citation needed
]
Traditional architecture
[
edit
]
The main traditional styles of building (in conjunction with modern styles) are the distinct
Sudano-Sahelian
style in inland areas, and the coastal forest styles more reminiscent of other sub-Saharan areas. They differ greatly in construction due to the demands made by the variety of climates in the area, from tropical humid forests to arid grasslands and deserts. Despite the architectural differences, buildings perform similar functions, including the
compound
structure central to West African family life or strict distinction between the private and public worlds needed to maintain taboos or social etiquette.
[
citation needed
]
Clothing
[
edit
]
In contrast to other parts of the continent south of the
Sahara Desert
, the concepts of
hemming
and
embroidering
clothing have been traditionally common to West Africa for centuries, demonstrated by the production of various
breeches
,
shirts
,
tunics
and
jackets
. As a result, the peoples of the region's diverse nations wear a wide variety of clothing with underlying similarities. Typical pieces of west African formal attire include the knee-to-ankle-length, flowing
Boubou
robe,
Dashiki
, and
Senegalese
Kaftan
(also known as
Agbada
and
Babariga
), which has its origins in the clothing of nobility of various West African empires in the 12th century. Traditional half-sleeved, hip-long, woven smocks or tunics (known as
fugu
in Gurunsi,
riga
in Hausa) ? worn over a pair of baggy trousers?is another popular garment.
[104]
In the coastal regions stretching from southern Ivory Coast to Benin, a huge rectangular cloth is wrapped under one arm, draped over a shoulder, and held in one of the wearer's hands?coincidentally, reminiscent of
Romans
'
togas
. The best-known of these toga-like garments is the
Kente
(made by the
Akan people
of
Ghana
and
Ivory Coast
), who wear them as a gesture of national pride.
Cuisine
[
edit
]
Scores of foreign visitors to West African nations (e.g.,
traders
,
historians
,
emigrants
, colonists, missionaries) have benefited from its citizens' generosity, and even left with a piece of its cultural heritage, via its foods. West African cuisines have had a significant influence on those of
Western civilization
for centuries; several dishes of West African origin are currently enjoyed in the
Caribbean
(e.g., the
West Indies
and
Haiti
); Australia; the USA (particularly
Louisiana
,
Virginia
,
North
and
South Carolina
); Italy; and other countries. Although some of these recipes have been altered to suit the sensibilities of their adopters, they retain a distinct West African essence.
[105]
West Africans cuisines include fish (especially among the coastal areas), meat, vegetables, and fruits?most of which are grown by the nations' local farmers. In spite of the obvious differences among the various local cuisines in this multinational region, the foods display more similarities than differences. The small difference may be in the ingredients used. Most foods are cooked via boiling or frying. Commonly featured, starchy vegetables include
yams
,
plantains
,
cassava
, and sweet potatoes.
[106]
Rice is also a staple food, as is the
Serer people
's
sorghum
couscous
(called
"
Chereh
"
in
Serer
) particularly in Senegal and
the Gambia
.
[107]
Jollof rice
?originally from the
Kingdom of Jolof
(now part of modern-day Senegal) but has spread to the Wolofs of Gambia?is also enjoyed in many Western nations, as well;
[108]
Mafe
(proper:
"
Tigh-dege-na
"
or
Domodah
) from
Mali
(via the
Bambara
and
Mandinka
)
[109]
?a peanut-butter stew served with rice;
[110]
[111]
Akara
(fried bean balls seasoned with spices served with sauce and bread) from Nigeria is a favorite breakfast for Gambians and Senegalese, as well as a favorite side snack or side dish in
Brazil
and the
Caribbean
just as it is in West Africa. It is said that its exact origin may be from
Yorubaland
in Nigeria.
[112]
[113]
Fufu
(from the
Twi language
, a dough served with a spicy stew or sauce for example
okra
stew etc.) from
Ghana
is enjoyed throughout the region and beyond even in
Central Africa
with their own versions of it.
[114]
Dishes such as
taguella
,
eghajira
, etc. are popular among the
Tuareg people
.
[115]
Recreation and sports
[
edit
]
The board game
oware
is quite popular in many parts of Southern Africa. The word
"Oware"
originates from the
Akan people
of Ghana. However, virtually all African peoples have a version of this board game.
[116]
The major
multi-sport event
of West Africa is the ECOWAS Games which commenced at the
2012 ECOWAS Games
.
Football
is also a pastime enjoyed by many, either spectating or playing. The major national teams of West Africa, the
Ghana national football team
, the
Ivory Coast national football team
, and the
Nigeria national football team
regularly win the
Africa Cup of Nations
.
[117]
Major
football teams
of West Africa are
Asante Kotoko SC
and
Accra Hearts of Oak SC
of the
Ghana Premier League
,
Enyimba International
of the
Nigerian Premier League
and
ASEC Mimosas
of the
Ligue 1 (Ivory Coast)
. The
football
governing body of West Africa is the
West African Football Union
(WAFU) and the major tournament is the
West African Club Championship
and
WAFU Nations Cup
, along with the annual individual award of
West African Footballer of the Year
.
[118]
[119]
Music
[
edit
]
Mbalax
,
Highlife
,
Fuji
,
Afrobeat
, and
Afrobeats
are modern musical genres of West Africa and its diaspora.
Traditional
folk music
is also well-preserved. Some types of folk music are religious in nature such as the "Tassou" tradition used in
Serer religion
.
[120]
Griot artists
[
edit
]
Griot
artists and praise-singing is an important musical tradition related to the oral history of West African culture. Traditionally, musical and oral history as conveyed over generations by griots are typical of West African culture in
Mande
,
Wolof
,
Songhay
,
Serer
and, to some extent,
Fula
areas in the far west. A hereditary caste occupying the fringes of society, the griots were charged with memorizing the histories of local rulers and personages and the caste was further broken down into music-playing griots (similar to
bards
) and non-music-playing griots. Like Praise-singers, the griot's main profession was musical acquisition and prowess, and patrons were the sole means of financial support. Modern griots enjoy higher status in the patronage of rich individuals in places such as
Mali
,
Senegal
,
Mauritania
and
Guinea
, and to some extent make up the vast majority of musicians in these countries. Examples of modern popular griot artists include
Youssou N'Dour
,
Mamadou Diabate
,
Sona Jobareteh
, and
Toumani Diabate
.
In other areas of West Africa, primarily among the
Hausa
,
Mossi
,
Dagomba
and
Yoruba
in the area encompassing
Burkina Faso
, northern
Ghana
,
Nigeria
and
Niger
, the traditional profession of non-hereditary praise-singers,
minstrels
, bards and poets play a vital role in extending the public show of power, lineage and prestige of traditional rulers through their exclusive patronage. Like the griot tradition, praise singers are charged with knowing the details of specific historical events and royal lineages, but more importantly need to be capable of poetic improvisation and creativity, with knowledge of traditional songs directed towards showing a patron's financial and political or religious power. Competition between Praise-singing ensembles and artistes are high, and artists responsible for any extraordinarily skilled prose, musical compositions, and panegyric songs are lavishly rewarded with money, clothing, provisions and other luxuries by patrons who are usually politicians, rulers, Islamic clerics and merchants; these successful praise-singers rise to national stardom. Examples include
Mamman Shata
,
Souley Konko
,
Fati Niger
,
Saadou Bori
and
Dan Maraya
. In the case of Niger, numerous praise songs are composed and shown on television in praise of local rulers, Islamic clerics, and politicians.
Theatre
[
edit
]
Film industry
[
edit
]
Nollywood
of Nigeria, is the main film industry of West Africa. The Nigerian cinema industry is the second largest film industry in terms of number of annual film productions, ahead of the
American film industry
in
Hollywood
.
[121]
Senegal
and
Ghana
also have long traditions of producing films. The late
Ousmane Sembene
, the Senegalese film director, producer and writer is from the region, as is the
Ghanaian
Shirley Frimpong-Manso
.
Religion
[
edit
]
Islam
[
edit
]
Islam
is the predominant
religion
of the West African interior and the far west coast of the continent (75% of West Africans); and was introduced to the region by traders in the 9th century. Islam is the religion of the region's biggest ethnic groups by population. Islamic rules on livelihood, values, dress and practices had a profound effect on the populations and cultures in their predominant areas, so much so that the concept of tribalism
[
vague
]
is less observed by Islamized groups like the
Mande
,
Wolof
,
Hausa
,
Fula
,
Songhai
,
Zarma
or
Soninke
, than they are by non-Islamized groups.
[122]
Ethnic intermarriage and shared cultural icons are established through a superseded commonality of belief or community, known as
ummah
.
[123]
Traditional Muslim areas include
Senegal
,
Gambia
,
Mali
,
Mauritania
,
Guinea
,
Niger
; the upper coast and inland two-thirds of
Sierra Leone
and inland
Liberia
; the western, northern and far-eastern regions of
Burkina Faso
; and the northern halves of the coastal nations of
Nigeria
,
Benin
,
Togo
,
Ghana
and
Ivory Coast
.
[124]
African traditional
[
edit
]
Traditional African religions
(noting the many different belief systems) are the oldest belief systems among the populations of this region, and include
Akan religion
,
Yoruba religion
,
Odinani
-
Igbo
, and
Serer religion
. They are
spiritual
creeds
that also perform other functions such as preserving the historical and cultural heritage of the people,
[125]
and "West African tribal groups" blend social and
religious rituals
together to the point where there is usually not "much distinction" between them.
[126]
Although traditional beliefs vary from one place to the next, there are more similarities than differences.
[127]
Most traditional religious organizations "do not have a formal hierarchy of
priests
."
[126]
Group rituals are usually overseen by tribal elders who, "within many cultures", "serve as the main religious figures and determine the time, nature, and intricacies of rituals", or
shaman
priests who can use magic to heal, control fate, and connect to the spirit world.
[126]
Christianity
[
edit
]
In 2010, around 20% of West Africans identified as
Christians
.
[128]
Christianity
was largely introduced from the late 19th century onward, when missionaries from European countries brought the religion to the region.
[129]
West African Christians are predominantly
Roman Catholic
or
Anglican
; some
Evangelical
churches have also been established. Christianity has become the predominant religion in the
central
and southern part of
Nigeria
, southern
Ivory Coast
, and the coastal regions stretching from southern
Ghana
to coastal parts of
Sierra Leone
. Like Islam, elements of traditional African religion are mixed with Christianity.
[130]
Demographics and languages
[
edit
]
West Africans primarily speak
Niger?Congo languages
, belonging mostly, though not exclusively, to its non-Bantu branches, though some
Nilo-Saharan
and
Afro-Asiatic
speaking groups are also found in West Africa. The Niger?Congo-speaking
Yoruba
,
Igbo
,
Fulani
,
Akan
and
Wolof
ethnic groups are the largest and most influential. In the central Sudan/Sahel,
Mandinka
or
Mande
groups are most significant. Chadic-speaking groups, most prominently including the
Hausa
, and Nilo-Saharan-speaking communities, such as the
Songhai
,
Kanuri
and
Zarma
, are found in the eastern parts of the Sahel bordering
Central Africa
. The population of West Africa is estimated at 419 million
[1]
[2]
people as of 2021. In
Mali
,
Niger
, and
Burkina Faso
, the nomadic
Tuareg
speak the
Tuareg language
, a Berber language.
Colonial languages also play a pivotal cultural and political role, being adopted as the official languages of most countries in the region, as well as
linguae franca
in communication between the region's various ethnic groups. For historical reasons, Western European languages such as
French
,
English
and
Portuguese
predominate in Southern and Coastal subregions, whilst
Arabic
(in its
Maghrebi
varieties) spreads inland northwards.
Architecture
[
edit
]
Further information in the sections of
Architecture of Africa
:
Science and technology
[
edit
]
Further information in the sections of
History of science and technology in Africa
:
Economic and regional organizations
[
edit
]
The Economic Community of West African States (
ECOWAS
; also known as CEDEAO in
French
and
Portuguese
) is a regional
political
and
economic union
of fifteen countries located in West Africa. Collectively, these countries comprise an area of 5,114,162 km
2
(1,974,589 sq mi) and have an estimated population of over 424.34 million.
[131]
Considered one of the pillar
regional blocs
of the continent-wide
African Economic Community
(AEC), the stated goal of ECOWAS is to achieve "collective
self-sufficiency
" for its member states by creating a single large trade bloc by building a full economic and trading union. Additionally, ECOWAS aims to raise living standards and promote economic development.
[132]
The union was established on 28 May 1975, with the signing of the
Treaty of Lagos
, with its stated mission to promote economic integration across the region. A revised version of the treaty was agreed and signed on 24 July 1993 in
Cotonou
, the largest city in Benin.
[133]
ECOWAS's fundamental principles rely on equity, inter-dependence, solidarity, co-operation, nonaggression, regional peace, promotion of human rights, and economic and social justice.
[134]
Notably among ECOWAS's protocols and plans are the ECOWAS Free Movement of Persons, Residences and Establishment Protocol and the Ecotour Action Plan 2019?2029. The Free Movement of Persons Protocol permits citizens the right to enter and reside in any member state's territory,
[135]
and the Ecotour Action Plan aims to develop and integrate the tourist industry of each member state.
[136]
ECOWAS also serves as a
peacekeeping
force in the region, with member states occasionally sending joint military forces to intervene in the bloc's member countries at times of political instability and unrest.
[137]
[138]
In 2024, Niger, Burkina Faso, and Mali announced their withdrawal from the bloc. The countries had been suspended from ECOWAS due to
military takeovers of their respective governments
.
West African Monetary Union
[
edit
]
The
West African Monetary Union
(or UEMOA from its name in French,
Union economique et monetaire ouest-africaine
) is limited to the eight, mostly Francophone countries that employ the
CFA franc
as their common currency. The
Liptako?Gourma Authority
of Mali, Niger, and Burkina Faso seeks to jointly develop the contiguous areas of the three countries.
Women's peace movement
[
edit
]
Since the adoption of the
United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325
in 2000, women have been engaged in rebuilding war-torn Africa. Starting with the
Women of Liberia Mass Action for Peace
and Women in Peacebuilding Network (WIPNET), the
peace movement
has grown to include women across West Africa.
Established on May 8, 2006,
Women Peace and Security Network ? Africa
(WIPSEN-Africa), is a women-focused, women-led
Pan-African
non-governmental organization based in
Ghana
.
[139]
The organization focuses on empowering women to have a role in political and peace governance in Africa.
[139]
It has a presence in
Ghana
,
Nigeria
,
Ivory Coast
,
Liberia
and
Sierra Leone
. Regional leaders of
nonviolent resistance
include
Leymah Gbowee
,
[140]
Comfort Freeman
, and
Aya Virginie Toure
.
Pray the Devil Back to Hell
is a documentary film about the origin of this peace movement. The film has been used as an advocacy tool in post-conflict zones like
Sudan
and
Zimbabwe
, mobilizing African women to petition for peace and security.
[141]
Gallery
[
edit
]
Cityscapes of the largest cities
[
edit
]
Capital cities of West Africa
[
edit
]
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
a
b
c
"World Population Prospects 2022"
.
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs
, Population Division
. Retrieved
17 July
2022
.
- ^
a
b
c
"World Population Prospects 2022: Demographic indicators by region, subregion and country, annually for 1950-2100"
(XSLX)
("Total Population, as of 1 July (thousands)").
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs
, Population Division
. Retrieved
17 July
2022
.
- ^
a
b
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs
, Population Division (2017). World Population Prospects: The 2017 Revision, custom data acquired via website.
[1]
- ^
"IMF GDP 2011"
. Retrieved
17 October
2014
.
- ^
"IMF GDP data, September 2011"
. Retrieved
17 October
2014
.
- ^
a
b
"IMF GDP data, October 1515"
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17 October
2014
.
- ^
"Nigerian Economy Overtakes South Africa's on Rebased GDP"
.
Bloomberg News
. 7 April 2014
. Retrieved
17 October
2014
.
- ^
a
b
c
"United Nations Statistics Division ? Standard Country and Area Codes Classifications"
. Archived from
the original
on 13 July 2011
. Retrieved
17 October
2014
.
- ^
Paul R. Masson, Catherine Anne Pattillo, "Monetary union in West Africa (ECOWAS): is it desirable and how could it be achieved?" (Introduction). International Monetary Fund, 2001.
ISBN
1-58906-014-8
- ^
"West African population, 1950?2050 | West Africa Gateway | Portail de l'Afrique de l'Ouest"
.
west-africa-brief.org
. Archived from
the original
on 30 October 2021
. Retrieved
30 October
2021
.
- ^
"UEMOA economies are projected to grow by 6.6% in 2020 | West Africa Gateway | Portail de l'Afrique de l'Ouest"
.
www.west-africa-brief.org
. Archived from
the original
on 30 October 2021
. Retrieved
30 October
2021
.
- ^
Haour, Anne (25 July 2013).
"Wealth-in-people"
.
Outsiders and Strangers: An Archaeology of Liminality in West Africa
. Oxford University Press. p. 38.
doi
:
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ISBN
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.
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.
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.
doi
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.
ISBN
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.
JSTOR
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34
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2020JArSR..34j2658N
.
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.
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.
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29727585
.
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Scerri, Eleanor M. L. (2021).
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.
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:
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.
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.
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33431997
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.
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d
e
MacDonald, Kevin C. (2 September 2003).
"Archaeology, language and the peopling of West Africa: a consideration of the evidence"
.
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. Routledge. pp. 39?40, 43?44.
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Further reading
[
edit
]
- Akyeampong, Emmanuel Kwaku.
Themes in West Africa's History
(2006).
- Brydon, Lynne. "Constructing Avatime: questions of history and identity in a West African polity, c. 1690s to the twentieth century."
Journal of African History
49.1 (2008): 23?42.
online
- Collins, Robert O.
African History: Western African History
(1990).
- Davidson, Basil.
A History of West Africa, 1000?1800
(1978), numerous editions
- Delavignette, Robert.
Freedom and Authority in French West Africa
(Routledge, 2018).
- Dueppen, Stephen A. "The archaeology of West Africa, ca. 800 BCE to 1500 CE."
History Compass
14.6 (2016): 247?263.
- Edgerton, Robert B.
The Fall of the Asante Empire: The Hundred-Year War For Africa'S Gold Coast
(2002).
- Fage, J. D.
A Guide to Original Sources for Precolonial Western Africa Published in European Languages
(2nd ed. 1994); updated in Stanley B. Alpern, ed.
Guide to Original Sources for Precolonial Western Africa
(2006).
- Festus, Jacob et al. eds.
History of West Africa
(Vol. 1, 1989).
- Greene, S. E.
Sacred Sites and the Colonial Encounter: A History of Meaning and Memory in Ghana
(2002).
- Griswold, Wendy.
Writing African women: Gender, popular culture and literature in West Africa
(Zed Books Ltd., 2017).
- Ham, Anthony.
West Africa
(2013)
online
.
- Hayward, Derek F., and Julius Oguntoyinbo.
Climatology of West Africa
(Routledge, 2019).
- Hopkins, Antony Gerald.
An economic history of West Africa
(2014)
online
.
- Huber, Caroline, Lyn Finelli, and Warren Stevens. "The economic and social burden of the 2014 Ebola outbreak in West Africa."
Journal of infectious diseases 218.Supplement_5
(2018): S698?S704.
- Kane, Ousmane Oumar,
Beyond Timbuktu: An Intellectual History of Muslim West Africa
(2016).
- Lavallee, Emmanuelle; Roubaud, Francois (3 June 2019).
"Corruption in the Informal Sector: Evidence from West Africa"
.
The Journal of Development Studies
.
55
(6): 1067?1080.
doi
:
10.1080/00220388.2018.1438597
.
S2CID
158886041
.
- Law, Robin (1985). "Human Sacrifice in Pre-Colonial West Africa".
African Affairs
.
84
(334): 53?87.
doi
:
10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a097676
.
JSTOR
722523
.
- Mann, Gregory (2005). "Locating Colonial Histories: Between France and West Africa".
The American Historical Review
.
110
(2): 409?434.
doi
:
10.1086/ahr/110.2.409
.
JSTOR
10.1086/531320
.
- Martinez-Alvarez, Melisa; Jarde, Alexander; Usuf, Effua; Brotherton, Helen; Bittaye, Mustapha; Samateh, Ahmadou L; Antonio, Martin; Vives-Tomas, Joan; D'Alessandro, Umberto; Roca, Anna (May 2020). "COVID-19 pandemic in west Africa".
The Lancet Global Health
.
8
(5): e631?e632.
doi
:
10.1016/S2214-109X(20)30123-6
.
PMID
32246918
.
- Mazrui, Ali A.
Islam and the English language in East and West Africa
(Routledge, 2017).
- Meillassoux, Claude, ed.
The development of indigenous trade and markets in West Africa: studies presented and discussed at the tenth International African seminar at Fourah Bay college, Freetown, December 1969
(Routledge, 2018).
- Mendonsa, Eugene L.
West Africa: An Introduction to Its History
(2002)
- O'Brien, Donal Cruise, Richard Rathbone, John Dunn, eds.
Contemporary West African States
(2002)
online free to borrow
- Soares, Benjamin (March 2014). "The Historiography of Islam in West Africa: An Anthropologist's View".
The Journal of African History
.
55
(1): 27?36.
doi
:
10.1017/S0021853713000819
.
hdl
:
1887/25369
.
S2CID
162823960
.
- Tonkin, Elizabeth.
Narrating our pasts: The social construction of oral history
(Cambridge university press, 1995), on West Africa
- Westermann, Diedrich, and Margaret Arminel Bryan.
The Languages of West Africa: Handbook of African Languages
(Routledge, 2017).
External links
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