1547?1721 Russian state
The
Tsardom of Russia
,
[a]
also known as the
Tsardom of Muscovy
,
[b]
was the centralized Russian state from the assumption of the title of
tsar
by
Ivan IV
in 1547 until the foundation of the
Russian Empire
by
Peter the Great
in 1721.
From 1550 to 1700, Russia grew by an average of 35,000 square kilometres (14,000 sq mi) per year.
[11]
The period includes the
upheavals
of the transition from the
Rurik
to the
Romanov
dynasties, wars with the
Polish?Lithuanian Commonwealth
,
Sweden
, and the
Ottoman Empire
, and the
Russian conquest of Siberia
, to the reign of Peter the Great, who took power in 1689 and transformed the tsardom into an empire. During the
Great Northern War
, he implemented
substantial reforms
and proclaimed the Russian Empire after
victory over Sweden
in 1721.
Name
While the oldest
endonyms
of the
Grand Duchy of Moscow
used in its documents were "Rus'" (
Русь
) and the "Russian land" (
Русская земля
,
Russkaya zemlya
),
[12]
a new form of its name in Russian became common by the 15th century.
[13]
[14]
[15]
The vernacular
Rus
'
was transformed into
Rus(s)iya
or
Ros(s)iya
(based on the Greek name for Rus').
[16]
In the 1480s, Russian state scribes Ivan Cherny and Mikhail Medovartsev mention Russia under the name
"Росиа"
(
Rosia
), and Medovartsev also mentions the sceptre "of Russian lordship" (
Росийскаго господства
,
Rosiyskago gospodstva
).
[17]
In the following century, the new forms co-existed with
Rus'
and appeared in an inscription on the western
portal
of the Transfiguration Cathedral of the Spaso-Preobrazhensky Monastery in
Yaroslavl
(1515), on the
icon case
of the
Theotokos of Vladimir
(1514), in the work by
Maximus the Greek
,
[18]
the
Russian Chronograph
written by Dosifei Toporkov (died 1543 or 1544)
[19]
in 1516?1522, and in other sources.
[20]
On 16 January 1547,
Ivan IV
was crowned the
tsar and grand prince of all Russia
(
Царь и Великий князь всея Руси
,
Tsar i Velikiy knyaz vseya Rusi
),
[21]
thereby proclaiming the Tsardom of Russia, or "the Great Russian Tsardom", as it was called in the
coronation
document,
[22]
by
Constantinople
Patriarch
Jeremiah II
,
[23]
[24]
and in numerous official texts.
[25]
[26]
[27]
[28]
[29]
[30]
The formula in manuscripts "to all his state of Great Russia" later replaced those found in other manuscripts ? "to all the Russian realm" (
vo vse Rossisskoe tsarstvo
); the former is more typical of the 17th century, when the usage of the term "
Great Russia
" (
Velikaya Rossiya
) became widely established.
[31]
By the 17th century, the form
Rossiya
replaced Rus' to describe the extent of the tsar's imperial authority in
chiny
, with
Feodor III
using the term "Great Russian Tsardom" (
Velikorossisskoe tsarstvie
) to denote an imperial and absolutist state, subordinating both Russian and non-Russian territories.
[32]
The old name
Rus'
was replaced in official documents, though the names
Rus
'
and
Russian land
were still common and synonymous to it.
[33]
The Russian state partly remained referred to as
Moscovia
(English:
Muscovy
) throughout Europe, predominantly in its
Catholic
part, though this
Latin
term was never used in Russia.
[34]
The two names
Russia
and
Moscovia
appear to have co-existed as interchangeable during the late 16th century and throughout the 17th century with different Western maps and sources using different names, so that the country was called "Russia, or Moscovia" (
Latin
:
Russia seu Moscovia
) or "Russia, popularly known as Moscovia" (
Latin
:
Russia vulgo Moscovia
). In England in the 16th century, it was known both as Russia and Muscovy.
[35]
[36]
Such notable Englishmen as
Giles Fletcher
, author of the book
Of the Russe Common Wealth
(1591), and
Samuel Collins
, author of
The Present State of Russia
(1668), both of whom visited Russia, were familiar with the term
Russia
and used it in their works.
[37]
So did numerous other authors, including
John Milton
, who wrote
A brief history of Moscovia and of other less-known countries lying eastward of Russia
, published posthumously,
[38]
starting it with the words: "The Empire of Moscovia, or as others call it, Russia...".
[39]
According to prominent historians like
Alexander Zimin
and Anna Khoroshkevich, the continuous use of the term
Moscovia
was a result of traditional habit and the need to distinguish between the
Muscovite
and the
Lithuanian
part of Rus', as well as of the political interests of the
Polish?Lithuanian Commonwealth
, which competed with Moscow for the western regions of Rus'. Due to the propaganda of the Commonwealth,
[40]
[41]
as well as of the
Jesuits
, the term
Moscovia
was used instead of Russia in many parts of Europe where prior to the reign of Peter the Great there was a lack of direct knowledge of the country. In
Northern Europe
and at the court of the
Holy Roman Empire
, however, the country was known under its own name,
Russia
or
Rossia
.
[42]
Sigismund von Herberstein
, ambassador of the
Holy Roman Emperor
in Russia, used both
Russia
and
Moscovia
in his work on the Russian tsardom and noted: "The majority believes that Russia is a changed name of
Roxolania
. Muscovites ("Russians" in the German version) refute this, saying that their country was originally called Russia (Rosseia)".
[43]
Pointing to the difference between Latin and Russian names, French captain
Jacques Margeret
, who served in Russia and left a detailed description of
L'Empire de Russie
of the early 17th century that was presented to King
Henry IV
, stated that foreigners make "a mistake when they call them Muscovites and not Russians. When they are asked what nation they are, they respond 'Russac', which means 'Russians', and when they are asked what place they are from, the answer is Moscow,
Vologda
, Ryasan and other cities".
[44]
The closest analogue of the Latin term
Moscovia
in Russia was "Tsardom of Moscow", or "Moscow Tsardom" (
Московское царство
,
Moskovskoye tsarstvo
), which was used along with the name "Russia",
[45]
[46]
sometimes in one sentence, as in the name of the 17th century Russian work
On the Great and Glorious Russian Moscow State
(
О великом и славном Российском Московском государстве
,
O velikom i slavnom Rossiyskom Moskovskom gosudarstve
).
[47]
History
Byzantine heritage
By the 16th century, the Russian ruler had emerged as a powerful, autocratic figure, a
Tsar
. By assuming that title, the sovereign of
Moscow
tried to emphasize that he was a major ruler or
emperor
(
tsar
(
царь
) represents the Slavic adaptation of the Roman Imperial title/name
Caesar
)
[48]
on a par with the
Byzantine emperor
. Indeed, after
Ivan III
married
Sophia Palaiologina
, the niece of the late Byzantine Emperor
Constantine XI Palaiologos
, in 1472, the Moscow court adopted
Byzantine
terms, rituals, titles, and emblems such as the
double-headed eagle
, which survives in the
coat of arms of Russia
.
At first, the Byzantine term
autokrator
expressed only the literal meaning of an independent ruler, but in the reign of
Ivan IV
(1533?1584) it came to imply unlimited (
autocratic
) rule. In 1547 the Grand Duke Ivan IV was crowned Tsar and thus was recognized ? at least by the
Russian Orthodox Church
? as Emperor. Notably, the hegumen
Philotheus of Pskov
claimed in 1510 that after
Constantinople
fell to the
Ottoman Empire
in 1453, the Russian tsar remained the only legitimate Orthodox ruler, and that
Moscow was the Third Rome
, becoming the final lineal successor to
Rome
and
Constantinople
; these were the two centers of
Christianity
and of the Roman empires (
Western
and
Eastern
) of earlier periods. The
"Third Rome" concept
would resonate in the self-image of the Russian people in future centuries.
Early reign of Ivan IV
The development of the Tsar's autocratic powers reached a peak during the reign of Ivan IV, and he gained the sobriquet "Grozny". The English word
terrible
is usually used to translate the Russian word
grozny
in Ivan's nickname, but this is a somewhat archaic translation. The Russian word
grozny
reflects the older English usage of
terrible
as in "inspiring fear or terror; dangerous; powerful; formidable". It does not convey the more modern connotations of English
terrible
, such as "defective" or "evil".
Vladimir Dal
defined
grozny
specifically in archaic usage and as an epithet for tsars: "Courageous, magnificent, magisterial and keeping enemies in fear, but people in obedience".
[49]
Other translations have also been suggested by modern scholars.
[50]
[51]
[52]
Ivan IV became
Grand Prince of Moscow
in 1533 at the age of three. The
Shuysky
and
Belsky
factions of the
boyars
competed for control of the regency until Ivan assumed the throne in 1547. Reflecting Moscow's new imperial claims, Ivan's coronation as Tsar was a ritual modeled after those of the Byzantine emperors. With the continuing assistance of a group of boyars, Ivan began his reign with a series of useful reforms. In the 1550s, he declared a new law code, revamped the military, and reorganized local government. These reforms undoubtedly were intended to strengthen the state in the face of continuous warfare. The key documents prepared by the so-called Select Council of advisors and promulgated during this period are as follows:
Foreign policies of Ivan IV
Muscovy
remained a fairly unknown society in Western Europe until Baron
Sigismund von Herberstein
published his
Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii
(literally
Notes on Muscovite Affairs
) in 1549. This provided a broad view of what had been a rarely visited and poorly reported state. In the 1630s, the Russian Tsardom was visited by
Adam Olearius
, whose lively and well-informed writings were soon translated into all the major languages of Europe.
Further information about Russia was circulated by English and Dutch
merchants
. One of them,
Richard Chancellor
, sailed to the
White Sea
in 1553 and continued overland to Moscow. Upon his return to England, the
Muscovy Company
was formed by himself,
Sebastian Cabot
, Sir
Hugh Willoughby
, and several London merchants. Ivan IV used these merchants to exchange letters with
Elizabeth I
.
Despite the domestic turmoil of the 1530s and 1540s, Russia continued to wage wars and to expand. It grew from 2.8 to 5.4 million square kilometers from 1533 to 1584.
[53]
Ivan
defeated and annexed
the
Khanate of Kazan
on the middle
Volga
in 1552 and later the
Astrakhan Khanate
, where the Volga meets the
Caspian Sea
. These victories transformed Russia into a multiethnic and multiconfessional state, which it continues to be today. The tsar now controlled the entire Volga River and gained access to Central Asia.
Expanding to the northwest toward the
Baltic Sea
proved to be much more difficult. In 1558, Ivan invaded
Livonia
, eventually involving himself in a
twenty-five-year war
against the
Polish?Lithuanian Commonwealth
, Sweden, and Denmark. Despite first successes, Ivan's army was pushed back, and the nation failed to secure a coveted position on the Baltic Sea.
Hoping to make profit from Russia's concentration on Livonian affairs,
Devlet I Giray
of
Crimea
, accompanied by as many as 120,000 horsemen,
repeatedly devastated the Moscow region
, until the
Battle of Molodi
put a stop to such northward incursions. But for decades to come, the southern borderland was annually pillaged by the
Nogai Horde
and the
Crimean Khanate
, who took local inhabitants with them as slaves. Tens of thousands of soldiers protected the
Great Abatis Belt
? a burden for a state whose social and economic development was stagnating.
Late reign of Ivan IV and oprichnina
During the late 1550s, Ivan developed a hostility toward his advisers, the government, and the
boyars
. Historians have not determined whether policy differences, personal animosities, or mental imbalance caused his wrath. In 1565, he divided Russia into two parts: his private domain (or
oprichnina
) and the public realm (or
zemshchina
). For his private domain, Ivan chose some of the most prosperous and important districts of Russia. In these areas, Ivan's agents attacked boyars, merchants, and even common people, summarily executing some and confiscating land and possessions. Thus began a decade of terror in Russia that culminated in the
Massacre of Novgorod
(1570).
As a result of the policies of the
oprichnina
, Ivan broke the economic and political power of the leading
boyar
families, thereby destroying precisely those persons who had built up Russia and were the most capable of administering it. Trade diminished, and peasants, faced with mounting taxes and threats of violence, began to leave Russia.
Efforts to curtail the mobility of the peasants
by tying them to their land brought Russia closer to legal
serfdom
. In 1572, Ivan finally abandoned the practices of the oprichnina.
According to a popular theory,
[
citation needed
]
[
by whom?
]
the oprichnina was started by Ivan in order to mobilize resources for the wars and to quell opposition. Regardless of the reason, Ivan's domestic and foreign policies had a
devastating effect on Russia
and led to a period of social struggle and civil war, the
Time of Troubles
(
Smutnoye vremya
, 1598?1613).
Time of Troubles
Ivan IV was succeeded by his son
Feodor
, who was uninterested in ruling and possibly mentally deficient. Actual power went to Feodor's brother-in-law, the boyar
Boris Godunov
(who is credited with abolishing
Yuri's Day
, the only time of the year when serfs were free to move from one landowner to another). Perhaps the most important event of Feodor's reign was the proclamation of the
Patriarchate of Moscow
in 1589. The creation of the patriarchate climaxed the evolution of a separate and totally independent
Russian Orthodox Church
.
In 1598, Feodor died without an heir, ending the
Rurik
Dynasty. Boris Godunov then convened a
Zemsky Sobor
, a national assembly of boyars, church officials, and commoners, which proclaimed him tsar, although various boyar factions refused to recognize the decision. Widespread crop failures caused the
Russian famine of 1601?1603
, and during the ensuing discontent, a man emerged who claimed to be
Tsarevich Demetrius
, Ivan IV's son who had died in 1591. This pretender to the throne, who came to be known as
False Dmitriy I
, gained support in Poland and marched to Moscow, gathering followers among the boyars and other elements as he went. Historians speculate
[54]
that Godunov would have weathered this crisis had he not died in 1605. As a result, False Dmitriy I entered Moscow and was crowned tsar that year, following the murder of Tsar
Feodor II
, Godunov's son.
Subsequently, Russia entered a period of continuous chaos, known as
The
Time of Troubles
(Смутное Время). Despite the Tsar's persecution of the boyars, the townspeople's dissatisfaction, and the gradual enserfment of the peasantry, efforts at restricting the power of the Tsar were only halfhearted. Finding no institutional alternative to the autocracy, discontented Russians rallied behind various pretenders to the throne. During that period, the goal of political activity was to gain influence over the sitting autocrat or to place one's own candidate on the throne. The boyars fought among themselves, the lower classes revolted blindly, and foreign armies occupied
the Kremlin
in Moscow, prompting many to accept
Tsarist autocracy
as a necessary means to restoring order and unity in Russia.
The Time of Troubles included a civil war in which a struggle over the throne was complicated by the machinations of rival boyar factions, the intervention of regional powers Poland and Sweden, and intense popular discontent, led by
Ivan Bolotnikov
. False Dmitriy I and his Polish garrison were overthrown, and a boyar,
Vasily Shuysky
, was proclaimed tsar in 1606. In his attempt to retain the throne, Shuysky allied himself with the Swedes, unleashing the
Ingrian War
with Sweden.
False Dmitry II
, allied with the Poles, appeared under the walls of Moscow and set up a mock court in the village of
Tushino
.
In 1609,
Poland intervened into Russian affairs officially
, captured
Shuisky
, and occupied the
Kremlin
. A group of Russian boyars signed in 1610 a treaty of peace, recognising
Ladislaus IV of Poland
, son of Polish king
Sigismund III Vasa
, as tsar. In 1611,
False Dmitry III
appeared in the Swedish-occupied territories, but was soon apprehended and executed. The Polish presence led to a patriotic revival among the Russians, and a volunteer army, financed by the
Stroganov
merchants and blessed by the Orthodox Church, was formed in
Nizhny Novgorod
and, led by Prince
Dmitry Pozharsky
and
Kuzma Minin
, drove the Poles out of the Kremlin. In 1613, a
zemsky Sobor
proclaimed the boyar
Mikhail Romanov
as tsar, beginning the 300-year reign of the
Romanov
family.
Romanovs
The immediate task of the new dynasty was to restore order. However, Russia's major enemies, Poland and Sweden, were engaged in a conflict with each other, which provided Russia with the opportunity to make peace with Sweden in 1617. The
Polish?Muscovite War
was ended with the
Truce of Deulino
in 1618, restoring temporarily Polish and Lithuanian rule over some territories, including
Smolensk
, lost by the
Grand Duchy of Lithuania
in 1509.
The early
Romanovs
were weak rulers. Under Mikhail, state affairs were in the hands of the tsar's father,
Filaret
, who in 1619 became Patriarch of Moscow. Later, Mikhail's son
Aleksey
(r. 1645?1676) relied on a boyar,
Boris Morozov
, to run his government. Morozov abused his position by exploiting the populace, and in 1648 Aleksey dismissed him in the wake of the
Salt Riot
in Moscow.
After
an unsuccessful attempt to regain Smolensk
from Poland in 1632, Russia made peace with Poland in 1634. Polish king
Władysław IV Vasa
, whose father and predecessor was
Sigismund III Vasa
, had been elected by Russian boyars as tsar of Russia during the Time of Troubles, renounced all claims to the title as a condition of the peace treaty.
Legal code of 1649
The
autocracy
survived the
Time of Troubles
and the rule of weak or corrupt tsars because of the strength of the government's central
bureaucracy
. Government functionaries continued to serve, regardless of the ruler's
legitimacy
or the
boyar
faction controlling the throne. In the 17th century, the bureaucracy expanded dramatically. The number of government departments (
prikazy
; sing.,
prikaz
) increased from twenty-two in 1613 to eighty by mid-century. Although the departments often had overlapping and conflicting
jurisdictions
, the central government, through
provincial
governors, was able to control and regulate all social groups, as well as trade, manufacturing, and even the
Eastern Orthodox Church
.
The
Sobornoye Ulozheniye
, a comprehensive
legal code
introduced in 1649, illustrates the extent of state control over Russian society. By that time, the boyars had largely merged with the new elite, who were obligatory servitors of the state, to form a new
nobility
, the
dvoryanstvo
. The state required service from both the old and the new nobility, primarily in the military because of permanent warfare on southern and western borders and attacks of
nomads
. In return, the nobility received land and
peasants
. In the preceding century, the state had gradually curtailed peasants' rights to move from one
landlord
to another; the 1649 code officially attached peasants to their
home
.
The state fully sanctioned
serfdom
, and runaway peasants became state
fugitives
. Landlords had complete power over their peasants. Peasants living on state-owned land, however, were not considered serfs. They were organized into
communes
, which were responsible for taxes and other obligations. Like serfs, however, state peasants were attached to the land they farmed. Middle-class urban
tradesmen
and craftsmen were assessed taxes, and, like the serfs, they were forbidden to change residence. All segments of the population were subject to military levy and to special taxes. By chaining much of Russian society to specific domiciles, the legal code of 1649 curtailed movement and subordinated the people to the interests of the state.
Under this code, increased state taxes and regulations altered the social discontent that had been simmering since the Time of Troubles. In the 1650s and 1660s, the number of peasant escapes increased dramatically. A favourite refuge was the
Don River
region, domain of the
Don Cossacks
. A major uprising occurred in the
Volga
region in 1670 and 1671.
Stenka Razin
, a Cossack who was from the Don River region, led a revolt that drew together wealthy Cossacks who were well established in the region and escaped serfs seeking free land. The unexpected uprising swept up the Volga River valley and even threatened Moscow. Tsarist troops finally defeated the rebels after they had occupied major cities along the Volga in an operation whose panache captured the imaginations of later generations of Russians. Razin was publicly tortured and executed.
Acquisition of the Wild Fields
The Tsardom of Russia continued its territorial growth through the 17th century. In the southwest, it claimed the
Wild Fields
(modern day
Eastern Ukraine
and South-Western Russia), which had been under
Polish?Lithuanian
rule and sought assistance from Russia to leave the rule of the Commonwealth.
[
citation needed
]
The
Zaporozhian Cossacks
, warriors organized in military formations, lived in the frontier areas bordering Poland, the
Crimean Tatar
lands. Although part of them was serving in the Polish army as
Registered Cossacks
, the
Zaporozhian Cossacks
remained fiercely independent and staged several rebellions against the Poles. In 1648, the peasants of what is now Eastern Ukraine joined the Cossacks in rebellion during the
Khmelnytsky Uprising
, because of the social and religious oppression they suffered under Polish rule. Initially, Cossacks were allied with
Crimean Tatars
, which had helped them to throw off Polish rule. Once the Poles convinced the Tartars to switch sides, the Zaporozhian Cossacks needed military help to maintain their position.
In 1648, the
Hetman
(leader) of the
Zaporozhian Host
,
Bohdan Khmelnytsky
, offered to ally with the Russian
tsar
,
Aleksey I
. Aleksey's acceptance of this offer, which was ratified in the
Treaty of Pereyaslav
in 1654, led to
a protracted war between Poland and Russia
. The
Truce of Andrusovo
, which did not involve the Hetmanate (
Cossack Hetmanate
) as a participating party of the agreement ended the war in 1667. Cossacks considered it as a Moscow betrayal. As a result, it split Cossack territory along the
Dnieper River
, reuniting the western sector (or
Right-bank Ukraine
) with Poland and leaving the eastern sector (
Left-bank Ukraine
) self-governing under the sovereignty of the tsar. However, the self-government did not last long and Cossack territory was eventually incorporated into the Russian Empire (after the
Battle of Poltava
) during the 18th century.
Raskol (Schism)
Russia's southwestern expansion, particularly its incorporation of the Wild Fields (modern day Eastern Ukraine), had
unintended consequences
. Most
Little Russians
were Orthodox, but their close contact with the
Roman Catholic
Polish also brought them Western intellectual currents. Through the Cossack
Academy in Kiev
, Russia gained links to Polish and Central European influences and to the wider Orthodox world. Although the Zaporozhian Cossack link induced creativity in many areas, it also weakened traditional Russian religious practices and culture. The Russian Orthodox Church discovered that its isolation from
Constantinople
had caused variations to appear between their
liturgical books
and practices.
The Russian Orthodox patriarch,
Nikon
, was determined to bring the Russian texts back into conformity with the
Greek
texts and practices of the time. But Nikon encountered opposition among the many Russians who viewed the corrections as improper foreign intrusions. When the Orthodox Church forced Nikon's reforms, a schism resulted in 1667. Those who did not accept the reforms came to be called the
Old Believers
; they were officially pronounced heretics and were persecuted by the church and the state. The chief opposition figure, the protopope
Avvakum
, was burned at the stake. The split afterwards became permanent, and many merchants and peasants joined the Old Believers.
The tsar's court also felt the impact of Little Russia and the West. Kiev was a major transmitter of new ideas and insight through the famed scholarly
academy
that
Metropolitan Mohyla
founded there in 1631. Other more direct channels to the West opened as international trade increased and more foreigners came to Russia. The Tsar's court was interested in the West's more advanced technology, particularly when military applications were involved. By the end of the 17th century, Little Russian, Polish, and West European penetration had weakened the Russian cultural synthesis – at least among the elite – and had prepared the way for an even more radical transformation.
Conquest of Siberia
Russia's eastward expansion encountered little resistance. In 1581, the
Stroganov
merchant family, interested in the fur trade, hired a
Cossack
leader,
Yermak Timofeyevich
, to lead an expedition into western
Siberia
. Yermak defeated the
Khanate of Sibir
and claimed the territories west of the
Ob
and
Irtysh Rivers
for Russia.
From such bases as
Mangazeya
, merchants, traders, and explorers pushed eastward from the Ob River to the
Yenisey River
, then on to the
Lena River
and the coast of the Pacific Ocean. In 1648, Cossack
Semyon Dezhnyov
opened the passage between America and Asia. By the middle of the 17th century, Russians had reached the
Amur River
and the outskirts of the
Chinese Empire
.
After a period of
Sino-Russian border conflicts
with the
Qing dynasty
, Russia made peace with China in 1689. By the
Treaty of Nerchinsk
, Russia ceded its claims to the Amur Valley, but it gained access to the region east of
Lake Baikal
and the trade route to
Beijing
. Peace with China strengthened the initial breakthrough to the Pacific that had been made in the middle of the century.
Peter the Great and the Russian Empire
Peter the Great
(1672?1725), who became ruler in his own right in 1696, brought the Tsardom of Russia, which had little prior contact with Western Europe, into the mainstream of European culture and politics. After suppressing numerous rebellions with considerable bloodshed, Peter embarked on
an incognito tour of Western Europe
. He became impressed with what he saw and was awakened. Peter began requiring the nobility to wear Western European clothing and shave off their beards, an action that the
boyars
protested bitterly.
Arranged marriages
among the nobility were banned, and the Orthodox Church was brought under state control. Military academies were established to create a modern Western European-style army and officer corps.
These changes did not win Peter many friends, and in fact caused great political division in the country. These, along with his notorious cruelties (such as the
torture murder
of
his own son
for plotting a rebellion) and the immense human suffering that accompanied many of his projects, such as the construction of
Saint Petersburg
, led many pious Russians to believe that he was the
Antichrist
. The
Great Northern War
against Sweden consumed much of Peter's attention for years; however, the Swedes were eventually defeated, and peace was agreed to in 1721. Russia annexed the Baltic coast from Sweden and parts of Finland, which would become the site of the new Russian capital, Saint Petersburg. The Russian victory in the Great Northern War marked a watershed in European politics, as it not only brought about the eclipse of Sweden as a
great power
, but also Russia's decisive emergence as a permanent European great power. The
Russian colonization of Siberia
also continued, and
war
with
Persia
brought about the acquisition of territory in the
Caucasus
, although Russia surrendered those gains after Peter's death in 1725.
[55]
Organization
- Bureaucratic titles
State flags
There was no single flag during the Tsardom. Instead, there were multiple flags:
- Standards used by the Tsar:
[56]
- Standard of the Tsar of Russia
(1693?1700): white-blue-red tricolor with golden
double-headed eagle
in the center.
[56]
Replaced by the Imperial standard in 1700 (see below).
[56]
- Imperial Standard
of the Tsar of Russia
: black double-headed eagle carrying St. Vladimir Red Coat of Arms, on a golden rectangular field, adopted in 1700 instead of the older white-blue-red Standard of the Tsar of Moscow.
[56]
- Civil flag
: The early
Romanov
Tsars instituted the two-headed eagle Imperial Flag of the Tsar, which origin dates back to 1472, as a Civil Flag, it remained the Civil Flag of Russia until replaced during the Empire in 1858.
[57]
- Civil ensign
of Russia
: the white-blue-red tricolor, that was adopted on 20 January 1705 by decree of
Peter I
.
[56]
- Naval ensign
of the
Imperial Russian Navy
: white field with a blue saltire, adopted in 1712.
[58]
Before that, the naval ensign of Russia was white-blue-red tricolor.
[58]
- Naval jack
of the Imperial Russian Navy
: red field with a blue saltire, adopted in 1700.
See also
Notes
References
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W. Werth, Paul (2014).
The Tsar's Foreign Faiths: Toleration and the Fate of Religious Freedom in Imperial Russia
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ISBN
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a
b
Population of Russia
Archived
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Archived
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Хорошкевич, А. Л. Символы русской государственности. -М. :Изд-во МГУ,1993. -96 с. :ил., фот.
ISBN
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Костомаров Н. И. Русская история в жизнеописаниях ее главнейших деятелей. Olma Media Group, 2004
[1]
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later changed to:
Российское царство
,
Rossiyskoye tsarstvo
), Зимин А. А., Хорошкевич А. Л. Россия времени Ивана Грозного. Москва, Наука, 1982
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Перевезенцев, С. В. Смысл русской истории, Вече, 2004
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Monahan, Erika (2016). "Russia: 3. Tsardom of Muscovy (1547?1721)".
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Magocsi, Paul R.
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ISBN
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Pipes, Richard.
Russia under the old regime
. p. 83.
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Б. М. Клосс. О происхождении названия "Россия". М.: Рукописные памятники Древней Руси, 2012. С. 3
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Б. М. Клосс. О происхождении названия "Россия". М.: Рукописные памятники Древней Руси, 2012. С. 13
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E. Hellberg-Hirn. Soil and Soul: The Symbolic World of Russianness. Ashgate, 1998. p. 54
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Lawrence N. Langer. Historical Dictionary of Medieval Russia. Scarecrow Press, 2001. p. 186
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Obolensky, Dimitri (1994).
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Б. М. Клосс. О происхождении названия "Россия". М.: Рукописные памятники Древней Руси, 2012. С. 30?38
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Б. М. Клосс. О происхождении названия "Россия". М.: Рукописные памятники Древней Руси, 2012. С. 55?56
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Б. М. Клосс. О происхождении названия "Россия". М.: Рукописные памятники Древней Руси, 2012. С. 61
- ^
Б. М. Клосс. О происхождении названия "Россия". М.: Рукописные памятники Древней Руси, 2012. С. 57
- ^
Robert Auty, Dimitri Obolensky. Companion to Russian Studies: Volume 1: An Introduction to Russian History. Cambridge University Press, 1976. p. 99
- ^
"Чин венчания на царство Ивана IV Васильевича. Российский государственный архив древних актов. Ф. 135. Древлехранилище. Отд. IV. Рубр. I. № 1. Л. 1?46"
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the original
on 23 January 2019
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2016
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- ^
Lee Trepanier. Political Symbols in Russian History: Church, State, and the Quest for Order and Justice. Lexington Books, 2010. p. 61: "so your great Russian Tsardom, more pious than all previous kingdoms, is the Third Rome"
- ^
Barbara Jelavich. Russia's Balkan Entanglements, 1806?1914.
Cambridge University
Press, 2004. p. 37. Note 34: "Since the first Rome fell through the Appollinarian heresy and the second Rome, which is Constantinople, is held by the infidel Turks, so then thy great Russian Tsardom, pious Tsar, which is more pious than previous kingdoms, is the third Rome"
- ^
Richard S. Wortman. Scenarios of Power: Myth and Ceremony in Russian Monarchy from Peter the Great to the Abdication of Nicholas II. Princeton University Press, 2013. p. 17
- ^
Maija Jansson. England and the North: The Russian Embassy of 1613?1614. American Philosophical Society, 1994. p. 82: "...the towns of our great Russian Tsardom", "all the people of all the towns of all the great Russian Tsardom".
- ^
Walter G. Moss. A History of Russia Volume 1: To 1917. Anthem Press, 2003. p. 207
- ^
Readings for Introduction to Russian civilization, Volume 1. Syllabus Division, University of Chicago Press, 1963. p. 253
- ^
Hans Georg Peyerle, George Edward Orchard. Journey to Moscow. LIT Verlag Munster, 1997. p. 47
- ^
William K. Medlin. Moscow and East Rome: A Political Study of the Relations of Church and State in Muscovite Russia. Delachaux et Niestl, 1952. p. 117: Addressing Patriarch Jeremiah, Tsar Feodor Ivanovich declares, "We have received the sceptre of the Great Tsardom of Russia to support and to watch over our pious and present Great Russian Tsardom and, with God's grace".
- ^
Skrynnikov, Ruslan G. (20 October 2015).
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ISBN
978-90-04-30401-7
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- ^
Wortman, Richard (26 March 2006).
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. Princeton University Press. p. 17.
ISBN
978-0-691-12374-5
.
Archived
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. Retrieved
30 October
2023
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Б. М. Клосс. О происхождении названия "Россия". М.: Рукописные памятники Древней Руси, 2012. С. 4
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Шмидт С. О. Памятники письменности в культуре познания истории России. М., 2007. Т. 1. Стр. 545
- ^
Felicity Stout. Exploring Russia in the Elizabethan commonwealth: The Muscovy Company and Giles Fletcher, the elder (1546?1611). Oxford University Press. 2015
- ^
Jennifer Speake
(editor).
Literature of Travel and Exploration: An Encyclopedia
. Routledge. 2014. p. 650
- ^
Marshall Poe (editor). Early exploration of Russia. Volume 1. Routledge. 2003
- ^
John T. Shawcross. John Milton: The Self and the World. University Press of Kentucky, 2015. p. 120
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Milton, John. A brief history of Moscovia and of other less-known countries lying eastward of Russia as far as Cathay, gather'd from the writings of several eye-witnesses
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Archived
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Кудрявцев, Олег Фёдорович.
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Русский мир, 1997.
[2]
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Тихвинский, С. Л., Мясников, В. С.
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Advertissement au Lecteur // Jacques Margeret. Estat de l'empire de Russie et grande duche de Moscovie, avec ce qui s'y est passe de plus memorable et tragique... depuis l'an 1590 jusques en l'an 1606 en septembre, par le capitaine Margeret. M. Guillemot, 1607. Modern French-Russian edition: Маржерет Ж. Состояние Российской империи (Тексты, комментарии, статьи). Ж. Маржерет в документах и исследованиях. Серия: Studia historica М. Языки славянской культуры. 2007. С. 46, 117
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Primary sources
- Grigory Kotoshikhin
's
Russia during the reign of Alexey Mikhailovich
(1665) is the indispensable source for those studying administration of the Russian tsardom
- Domostroy
is a 16th-century set of rules regulating everyday behaviour in the Russian boyar families.
Secondary sources
External links