Episcopal church in New York City
Church in New York, United States
Trinity Church
|
---|
|
Seen from Wall Street
|
|
40°42′29″N
74°00′44″W
/
40.70806°N 74.01222°W
/
40.70806; -74.01222
|
Location
| 75
Broadway
, Manhattan, New York
|
---|
Country
| United States
|
---|
Language(s)
| English
|
---|
Denomination
| Episcopal Church
|
---|
Churchmanship
| High Church
|
---|
Website
| trinitywallstreet
.org
/about
|
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|
Status
| Parish church
|
---|
Founded
| May 6, 1697
; 327 years ago
(
1697-05-06
)
|
---|
Founder(s)
| William III of England
|
---|
Dedicated
| May 1, 1846
|
---|
|
Functional status
| Active
|
---|
Architect(s)
| Richard Upjohn
(church)
Frederick Clarke Withers
(reredos, altar, and rear addition)
|
---|
Style
| Gothic Revival
|
---|
Years built
| 1839?1846
[1]
1876?1877
|
---|
Groundbreaking
| June 3, 1841
|
---|
Completed
| 1846
|
---|
|
Capacity
| 652
|
---|
Spire height
| 281 feet (86 m)
|
---|
Bells
| 23
|
---|
|
Diocese
| New York
|
---|
|
Rector
| Phillip A. Jackson
|
---|
|
|
Trinity Church and Graveyard
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Part of
| Wall Street Historic District
(
ID07000063
)
|
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NRHP reference
No.
| 76001252
|
---|
NYSRHP
No.
| 06101.001779
|
---|
NYCL
No.
| 0048
|
---|
|
Added to NRHP
| December 8, 1976
[4]
|
---|
Designated NHL
| December 8, 1976
[5]
|
---|
Designated NYSRHP
| June 23, 1980
[2]
|
---|
Designated NYCL
| August 16, 1966
[3]
|
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|
Trinity Church
is a historic
parish
in the
Episcopal Diocese of New York
, whose church is located at 89
Broadway
opposite
Wall Street
, in the
Financial District
of
Lower Manhattan
in
New York City
. Known for its centuries of history, prominent location, distinguished architecture and bountiful endowment,
[6]
Trinity's congregation is said to be "
high church
", its activities based on the traditions of the
Episcopal Church
and the worldwide
Anglican Communion
in missionary outreach, and fellowship. In addition to its main church, Trinity parish maintains two chapels:
St. Paul's Chapel
, and the Chapel of St. Cornelius the Centurion on
Governors Island
.
[7]
The
Church of the Intercession
, the
Trinity Chapel Complex
and many other of Manhattan's Episcopal congregations were once part of Trinity parish.
Columbia University
was founded on the church's grounds as King's College in 1754.
[8]
The current church building is the third to be constructed for the parish, and was designed by
Richard Upjohn
in the Gothic Revival style. Trinity's first church was a single-story rectangular structure facing the
Hudson River
, which was constructed in 1698 and destroyed in the
Great New York City Fire of 1776
. The parish's second church was built facing Wall Street and was
consecrated
in 1790. The third and current church was erected from 1839 to 1846 and was the
tallest building in the United States
until 1869, as well as the
tallest in New York City
until 1890. In 1876?1877 a
reredos
and altar were erected in memory of
William Backhouse Astor Sr.
, to the designs of architect
Frederick Clarke Withers
, who extended the rear.
The church is adjacent to the
Trinity Churchyard
, a burial ground, one of three used by the parish. Besides its church and two chapels, Trinity manages real estate properties with a combined worth of over $6 billion as of 2019
[update]
. Trinity's main church building is a
National Historic Landmark
as well as a
New York City designated landmark
. It is also a contributing property to the
Wall Street Historic District
, a NRHP district created in 2007.
History
[
edit
]
In 1696,
Governor Benjamin Fletcher
approved the purchase of land in
Lower Manhattan
by the
Church of England
community for construction of a new church. The parish received its charter from
King William III
on May 6, 1697. Its land grant specified an annual rent of 60 bushels of wheat.
[9]
The first rector was
William Vesey
(for whom nearby
Vesey Street
is named), a protege of
Increase Mather
, who served for 49 years until his death in 1746.
First Trinity Church
[
edit
]
The first Trinity Church building, a modest rectangular structure with a
gambrel roof
and small porch, was constructed in 1698, on
Wall Street
, facing the
Hudson River
. The land on which it was built was formerly a formal garden and then a burial ground.
[10]
[11]
[12]
It was built because in 1696, members of the
Church of England
(Anglicans) protested to obtain a "charter granting the church legal status" in New York City. According to historical records,
Captain William Kidd
lent the runner and tackle from his ship for hoisting the stones.
[13]
[14]
Anne, Queen of England
, increased the parish's land holdings to 215 acres (870,000 m
2
) in 1705. Later, in 1709, William Huddleston founded
Trinity School
as the
Charity School
of the church, and classes were originally held in the steeple of the church. In 1754, King's College (now
Columbia University
) was chartered by
King George II of Great Britain
, and instruction began with eight students in a school building near the church.
During the
American Revolutionary War
the city became the British military and political base of operations in North America, following the departure of General
George Washington
and the
Continental Army
shortly after
Battle of Long Island
and subsequent local defeats. Under British occupation clergy were required to be
Loyalists
, while the parishioners included some members of the revolutionary
New York Provincial Congress
, as well as the
First
and
Second Continental Congresses
.
The church was destroyed in the
Great New York City Fire of 1776
, which started in the Fighting Cocks Tavern, destroying between 400 and 500 buildings and houses, and leaving thousands of New Yorkers homeless. Six days later, most of the city's volunteer firemen followed General Washington north. Rev.
Charles Inglis
served throughout the war and then to Nova Scotia on evacuation with the whole congregation of Trinity Church.
[15]
The
Rev. Samuel Provoost
was appointed Rector of Trinity (1784?1800) in 1784, and the New York State Legislature ratified the charter of Trinity Church, deleting the provision that asserted its loyalty to the King of England.
Whig
patriots were appointed as vestrymen. In 1787, Provoost was consecrated as the first Bishop of the newly formed Diocese of New York. Following his 1789 inauguration at Federal Hall, George Washington attended
Thanksgiving
service, presided over by Bishop Provoost, at
St. Paul's Chapel
, a chapel of the Parish of Trinity Church. He continued to attend services there until the second Trinity Church was finished in 1790. St. Paul's Chapel is currently part of the Parish of Trinity Church and is the oldest public building in continuous use in New York City.
Second Trinity Church
[
edit
]
Construction on the second Trinity Church building began in 1788; it was consecrated in 1790. St. Paul's Chapel was used while the second Trinity Church was being built.
The second Trinity Church was built facing Wall Street; it was 200 feet tall, and longer and wider than its predecessor. Building a bigger church was beneficial because the population of New York City was expanding. The church was torn down after being weakened by severe snows during the winter of 1838?39.
The second Trinity Church was politically significant because President Washington and members of his government often worshiped there. Additional notable parishioners included
John Jay
and
Alexander Hamilton
.
[16]
Bird's-eye view of Trinity Church, 1846
View from church steeple, 1872
Third Trinity Church
[
edit
]
The third and current Trinity Church began construction in 1839 and was finished in 1846.
[1]
When the Episcopal Bishop of New York consecrated Trinity Church on
Ascension Day
(May 1) 1846, its soaring
Gothic Revival
spire, surmounted by a gilded cross, dominated the skyline of lower Manhattan. Trinity was a welcoming beacon for ships sailing into
New York Harbor
.
In 1843, Trinity Church's expanding parish was divided due to the burgeoning cityscape and to better serve the needs of its parishioners. The newly formed parish would build
Grace Church
, to the north on Broadway at 10th street, while the original parish would re-build Trinity Church, the structure that stands today. Both Grace and Trinity Churches were completed and consecrated in 1846.
Trinity Church held the title of
tallest building in the United States
until 1869, when it was surpassed by
St. Michael's Church, Old Town, Chicago
. Trinity continued to be the tallest in New York City, with its 281-foot (86 m) spire and cross, until it was surpassed in 1890 by the
New York World Building
.
[17]
In 1876?1877, a
reredos
and altar were erected in memory of
William Backhouse Astor, Sr.
, to the designs of architect
Frederick Clarke Withers
. As the chancel was rearranged, the vestry voted for a one-story rear extension with rooms for the clergy, choir, and a mortuary chapel.
[18]
The altarpiece was restored as part of the church's 21st-century renovation.
[19]
On July 10, 1976,
Queen Elizabeth II
and
Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh
, visited Trinity Church. Vestrymen presented the Queen with a symbolic "back rent" of 279
peppercorns
.
Inspiration, Please!
, a game show aired on Odyssey Network (now
Hallmark Channel
), taped at Trinity Church in 1995.
[20]
21st-century events
[
edit
]
Following the
September 11 attacks
, Trinity organized respite services at
St. Paul's Chapel
for first responders and volunteers at Ground Zero, providing meals, medical care, spiritual services, and a place of rest.
[21]
Memorial items such as cards, banners, clothing, photos, jewelry, stuffed animals, and more were left at St. Paul's in the aftermath of the attacks to commemorate those who died. Some of these materials and some of the chapel pews were donated to the
National September 11 Memorial and Museum
.
[22]
Falling wreckage knocked over a giant
sycamore
tree that had stood for nearly a century in the churchyard of St. Paul's. Sculptor
Steve Tobin
used its roots as the base for a bronze sculpture titled
Trinity Root
, which stood in front of Trinity Church at the corner of
Wall Street
and
Broadway
until December 2015, when it was moved by the church to its conference center in Connecticut. The move was controversial as it damaged the sculpture, which was later repaired, and the artist objected to its relocation.
[23]
Trinity is located near
Zuccotti Park
, the location of the
Occupy Wall Street
protests. It offered both moral and practical support to the demonstrators but balked when protesters demanded an encampment on church-owned land called
LentSpace
, adjoining
Juan Pablo Duarte Square
in the neighborhood of
Hudson Square
. The church hierarchy were criticized by others within the Anglican movement, most notably Archbishop
Desmond Tutu
.
[24]
On December 17, 2011, occupiers and a few clergy attempted to occupy LentSpace, which is surrounded by a
chain-link fence
. After demonstrating in Duarte Park and marching on the streets surrounding the park, occupiers climbed over
[25]
and under the fence. Police responded by arresting about 50 demonstrators, including at least three Episcopal clergymen and a Roman Catholic nun.
[26]
Architecture
[
edit
]
The third and present Trinity Church building was built in 1846 and designed by architect
Richard Upjohn
in the Gothic Revival style.
[27]
[28]
In 1976, the
United States Department of the Interior
designated Trinity Church a
National Historic Landmark
because of its architectural significance and its place within the history of New York City.
[5]
[29]
[30]
In 2018, the church began a comprehensive renovation to make the building more accessible and comfortable for worshippers, and to restore historic elements like stained glass windows, clerestory windows, and interior walls.
[31]
The renovation, approved by the
New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission
in January 2018,
[32]
was designed by
MBB Architects
.
[33]
According to
Traditional Building
magazine, the building "had been added to and altered through the decades in ways that compromised the original architecture, actions that prompted a new master plan and an enormous six-year renovation, restoration, and rejuvenation led by [...] MBB Architects that brings the edifice back to its original glory and transforms it for 21st-century worship."
[34]
Furthermore, "The building, which had suffered from deferred maintenance for decades, was systematically pieced back together with restored architecture and ornament, insulated walls and ceilings, new clerestory windows, an accessible chancel with a modified altar and altarpiece, a new vestry room, reimagined sacristy and choir rooms, three new organs, new interior and exterior lighting, and concealed audio-visual equipment for the broadcast of services and concerts."
[34]
This restoration effort was recognized in 2022 with a Lucy G. Moses Preservation Award from the New York Landmarks Conservancy.
[35]
The award program said, "These results have enhanced the worship experience and made the church more welcoming while improving the landmark's structure, accessibility, and resilience."
[36]
Bells
[
edit
]
The tower of Trinity Church currently contains 23
bells
, the heaviest of which weighs 27 U.S.
hundredweight
(2,700 pounds [1,200 kg]).
Eight of these bells were cast for the tower of the second church building and were hung for ringing in the English
change ringing
style. Three more bells were added later. In 1946 these bells were adapted for swing chiming and sounded by electric motors.
A project to install a new ring of 12 additional
change ringing
bells was initially proposed in 2001 but put on hold in the aftermath of the September attacks, which took place three blocks north of the church. This project came to fruition in 2006, thanks to funding from the
Dill Faulkes Educational Trust
. These new bells form the first ring of 12 change-ringing bells ever installed in a church in the United States.
[37]
The installation work was carried out by
Taylors, Eayre and Smith
of
Loughborough
, England, in September 2006.
In late 2006, the ringing of the bells for bell practice and tuning caused much concern to local residents, some of whose windows and residences are less than 100 feet (30 m) at eye level from the bell tower. The church then built a plywood deck right over the bells and placed shutters on the inside of the bell chamber's lancet windows. With the shutters and the plywood deck closed, the sound of the bells outside the tower is minimal. The shutters, and hatches in the plywood deck, are opened for public ringing.
Public ringing takes place before and after 11:15 a.m. Sunday service and on special occasions, such as 9/11 commemorations, weddings, and ticker-tape parades. Details of the individual bells can be found at "Dove's Guide for Church Bellringers".
[38]
Doors
[
edit
]
Trinity Church has three sets of impressive bronze doors, donated by
William Waldorf Astor, 1st Viscount Astor
in memory of his father,
John Jacob Astor III
. Conceived by
Richard Morris Hunt
, they date from 1893 and were produced by
Karl Bitter
(east door),
J. Massey Rhind
(south door), and
Charles Henry Niehaus
(north door). The north and east doors each consists of six panels from Church history or the Bible, and the south door depicts the history of New York in its six panels.
[39]
In 2015 Mark Francisco Bozzuti-Jones, a priest at Trinity Church, commissioned Mark Dukes to create the icon
Our Lady of Ferguson
.
[40]
In 2022, the church received and installed a new stained-glass window above the main entrance on Broadway. Created by the British stained-glass artist Thomas Denny, the window illustrates both "The Parable of the Talents" and "The Judgment of the Nations" from the gospel according to Matthew.
[41]
Burial grounds
[
edit
]
There are three
burial grounds
closely associated with Trinity Church:
- Trinity Churchyard
, surrounding the church at Wall Street and Broadway, is where
Alexander Hamilton
,
Elizabeth Schuyler Hamilton
,
Angelica Schuyler Church
,
Philip Hamilton
,
William Bradford
,
Franklin Wharton
,
Robert Fulton
, Captain
James Lawrence
,
William Alexander, Lord Stirling
,
Francis Lewis
,
Albert Gallatin
,
Horatio Gates
, and
Hercules Mulligan
are buried.
- Trinity Church Cemetery and Mausoleum
on
Riverside Drive
at 155th Street, formerly the location of
John James Audubon
's estate, is where Audubon,
Alfred Tennyson Dickens
,
John Jacob Astor
,
Clement Clarke Moore
, and
Ed Koch
are buried. It is the only remaining active cemetery in the borough of Manhattan.
- The
Churchyard of St. Paul's Chapel
is where memorials to the United Irishmen Addis Emmet and Dr. William MacNeven are located.
Services
[
edit
]
Trinity Church, as an Episcopal parish in the
Anglican Communion
, offers a full schedule of Daily Prayer and
Eucharist
services throughout the week, based on the
Book of Common Prayer
. It is also available for special occasions, such as weddings and baptisms. In addition to daily worship, Trinity Church provides Christian fellowship and outreach to the community. Sisters of the
Society of Saint Margaret
are part of the pastoral care team at Trinity.
[42]
Sunday
- 8
am: Trinity Church, Low Eucharist
- 9
am: Trinity Church, Family Eucharist (
Webcast
)
- 11:15
am: Trinity Church, Holy Eucharist (
Webcast
)
- 8
pm: Trinity Church, Compline by Candlelight
Monday?Friday
- 8:15
am: Morning Prayer, online
- 9
am: Morning Prayer, in person
- 12:05
pm: Holy Eucharist (
Webcast
)
- 5:15
pm: Evening Prayer, online
- Wednesday 5:30
pm: Contemplative Eucharist
Since 1993, Trinity Church has hosted the graduation ceremonies of the
High School of Economics and Finance
. The school is located on
Trinity Place
, a few blocks away from the church.
Rectors of Trinity Church
[
edit
]
- William Vesey
(1697?1746)
- Henry Barclay (1746?1764)
- Samuel Auchmuty (1764?1777)
- Charles Inglis
(1777?1783)
- Samuel Provoost
(1784?1800)
- Benjamin Moore
(1800?1816)
- John Henry Hobart
(1816?1830)
- William Berrian (1830?1862)
- Morgan Dix
(1862?1908)
- William Thomas Manning
(1908?1921)
- Caleb Rochford Stetson (1921?1932)
- Frederic Sydney Fleming (1932?1951)
- John Heuss (1952?1966)
- John Vernon Butler, Jr. (1966?1972)
- Robert Parks (1972?1987)
- Daniel Paul Matthews (1987?2004)
- James H. Cooper (2004?2015)
- William Lupfer (2015?2020)
- Phillip A. Jackson, (Priest-in-Charge 2020?2022; Rector 2022?present)
[43]
Music and arts
[
edit
]
Trinity Church has a rich music program.
[6]
Concerts at One
has been providing live professional classical and contemporary music for the Wall Street community since 1969, and the church has several organized choirs, featured Sunday mornings on
WQXR 105.9 FM
in New York City. Trinity presents world-class music programs both in New York City and around the world via high definition video streaming.
The mainstay of Trinity's music program is The Choir of Trinity Wall Street, a professional ensemble that leads liturgical music at Trinity Church and St. Paul's Chapel, presents new-music concerts in New York City, produces recordings, and performs in international tours. The Choir is often joined by the Trinity Baroque Orchestra, Trinity's ensemble of period instrumentalists, and NOVUS NY, Trinity's contemporary music orchestra.
Trinity is also home to a Youth Chorus, Youth Orchestra, Family Choir, Downtown Voices, change bell ringers, and a wide variety of arts programming through Congregational Arts. Visiting choirs from around the world perform at Trinity weekly.
Property holdings
[
edit
]
Beginning in the 1780s, the church's claim on 62 acres of Queen Anne's 1705 grant was contested in the courts by descendants of a 17th-century Dutchwoman, Anneke Jans Bogardus, who, it was claimed, held original title to that property. The basis of the lawsuits was that only five of Bogardus' six heirs had conveyed the land to the English crown in 1671.
[44]
[45]
Numerous times over the course of six decades, the claimants asserted themselves in court, losing each time. The attempt was even revived in the 20th century. In 1959, the
Internal Revenue Service
sued over the compensation of the church's property manager, but the church prevailed in
Stanton v. United States
.
Disclosure resulting from a lawsuit filed by a parishioner revealed total assets of about $2 billion as of 2011.
[6]
Although Trinity Church has sold off much of the land that was part of the royal grant from Queen Anne,
[44]
it is still one of the largest landowners in New York City with 14 acres of Manhattan real estate including 5.5 million square feet (510,000 m
2
) of commercial space in
Hudson Square
.
[6]
[46]
The parish's annual revenue from its real estate holdings was $158 million in 2011 with net income of $38 million,
[6]
making it perhaps one of the richest individual parishes in the world.
[44]
As of 2019
[update]
, Trinity's investment portfolio was worth over $6 billion,
[47]
[48]
[49]
At the end of 2018, the church's total
equity
was $8.3 billion, and it had $0.6 million in
liabilities
.
[50]
The institution also owns the
Trinity Court Building
property, where it formerly housed its offices and preschool. That building was demolished in 2015, and a replacement at 76 Trinity Place was completed in 2020.
[51]
[52]
The church was connected to 76 Trinity Place by a footbridge.
Trinity Church owned many tenement-houses in New York City during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
[53]
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
a
b
New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission
;
Dolkart, Andrew S.
; Postal, Matthew A. (2009). Postal, Matthew A. (ed.).
Guide to New York City Landmarks
(4th ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. p. 11.
ISBN
978-0-470-28963-1
.
- ^
"Cultural Resource Information System (CRIS)"
.
New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation
. November 7, 2014
. Retrieved
July 20,
2023
.
- ^
"Trinity Church and Graveyard"
(PDF)
.
New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission
. August 16, 1966.
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on August 20, 2019
. Retrieved
July 28,
2019
.
- ^
"National Register Information System"
.
National Register of Historic Places
.
National Park Service
. January 23, 2007.
- ^
a
b
"Trinity Church and Graveyard"
.
National Historic Landmark summary listing
. National Park Service. September 11, 2007. Archived from
the original
on December 29, 2007.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
Otterman, Sharon (April 24, 2013).
"Trinity Church Split on How to Manage $2 Billion Legacy of a Queen"
.
The New York Times
.
Archived
from the original on April 25, 2013
. Retrieved
April 25,
2013
.
- ^
"History"
.
Trinity Church
. March 26, 2016.
Archived
from the original on January 25, 2021
. Retrieved
December 31,
2020
.
- ^
W. Williamls, Peter (2010).
Encyclopedia of Religion in America
. University of Philadelphia University Press. p. 744.
ISBN
9780252009327
.
- ^
"TRINITY CHURCH PROPERTY.; Outline of the Legal History of the Trinity "Church Farm."
"
(PDF)
.
The New York Times
. November 18, 1859.
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on August 28, 2021
. Retrieved
June 13,
2018
.
- ^
"Digital redraft of the Castello Plan of New Amsterdam in New Netherland in 1660 [Beta]"
.
Archived
from the original on June 2, 2019
. Retrieved
May 16,
2017
.
- ^
"INDEX TO PLOTS ON THE CASTELLO PLAN MAP"
.
Ancestry.com
. Archived from
the original
on June 13, 2017
. Retrieved
May 16,
2017
.
- ^
"New York City 1695"
.
University of Texas Libraries
.
Archived
from the original on November 30, 2017
. Retrieved
May 15,
2017
.
- ^
"Historical Timeline"
.
TrinityChurch.org
.
Archived
from the original on May 26, 2019
. Retrieved
August 13,
2013
.
- ^
"Question of the Day: Trinity's Very Own Pirate?"
.
The Archivist's Mailbag
. Trinity Church. November 19, 2008. Archived from
the original
on December 26, 2011
. Retrieved
December 18,
2011
.
- ^
Loyalism in New York during the American revolution, p. 36
- ^
"Alexander Hamilton's Church Attendance at Trinity"
.
Trinity Church
. October 2, 2020.
Archived
from the original on October 23, 2020
. Retrieved
October 25,
2020
.
- ^
"Trinity Church"
.
trinitywallstreet.org
.
Archived
from the original on August 9, 2019
. Retrieved
November 17,
2016
.
- ^
"The Alterations in Trinity Church, New York. Mr. Frederick C. Withers, Architect."
American Architect and Building News
3, no 110 (February 3, 1878), 42.
- ^
Margolies, Jane (February 8, 2019).
"The Church With the $6 Billion Portfolio"
.
The New York Times
.
ISSN
0362-4331
. Retrieved
March 23,
2023
.
- ^
Bell, Charles W. (June 17, 1995).
"Religious Quiz Show Due"
.
Daily News
.
Archived
from the original on November 18, 2022
. Retrieved
May 26,
2022
.
- ^
"9/11, The Chapel that Stood | Trinity Church Wall Street"
.
trinitywallstreet.org
. Retrieved
May 14,
2024
.
- ^
"Collection of the National September 11 Memorial and Museum"
.
- ^
"Artist still in shock after Trinity Church uproots and breaks his 9/11 work"
.
The New York Times
. July 6, 2016.
Archived
from the original on July 23, 2016
. Retrieved
February 28,
2017
.
- ^
Matt Flegenheimer (December 16, 2011).
"Occupy Group Faults Church, a Onetime Ally"
.
The New York Times
.
Archived
from the original on December 17, 2011
. Retrieved
December 17,
2011
.
- ^
Nathan Schneider (December 19, 2011).
"Re-Occupy: A Movement Seeks a Sanctuary: On occupying Trinity Church?and the Occupy movement's relationship with established institutions"
.
Yes!
.
Archived
from the original on January 23, 2012
. Retrieved
December 31,
2011
.
- ^
Al Baker; Colin Moynihan (December 17, 2011).
"Arrests as Occupy Protest Turns to Church"
.
The New York Times
.
Archived
from the original on December 17, 2011
. Retrieved
December 18,
2011
.
- ^
Curl, James Stevens; Wilson, Susan (2015).
The Oxford Dictionary of Architecture
. Oxford Quick Reference. Oxford University Press. p. 789.
ISBN
978-0-19-967498-5
.
- ^
Smith, George Everard Kidder (1996).
Source Book of American Architecture: 500 Notable Buildings from the 10th Century to the Present
. Princeton Architectural Press. p. 202.
ISBN
978-1-56898-024-9
.
- ^
"National Register of Historic Places Inventory-Nomination"
. National Park Service. August 1976.
Archived
from the original on August 9, 2022
. Retrieved
November 18,
2022
.
- ^
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