Style of mosaic from the Roman period
A
Roman mosaic
is a
mosaic
made during the
Roman
period, throughout the
Roman Republic
and later
Empire
. Mosaics were used in a variety of private and public buildings,
on both floors and walls, though they competed with cheaper
frescos
for the latter. They were highly influenced by earlier and contemporary
Hellenistic
Greek
mosaics, and often included famous figures from history and mythology, such as
Alexander the Great
in the
Alexander Mosaic
.
A large proportion of the surviving examples of wall mosaics come from Italian sites such as
Pompeii
and
Herculaneum
. Otherwise, floor mosaics are far more likely to have survived, with many coming from the
fringes of the Roman Empire
. The
Bardo National Museum
in
Tunis
has an especially large collection from large villas in modern
Tunisia
.
[2]
Development
[
edit
]
Perhaps the earliest examples of Greco-Roman mosaic floors date to the late
Republican period
(2nd century BC) and are
from Delos
, Greece. Witts claims that
tessellated
pavements, using
tesserae
, were used in Europe from the late fifth to early fourth centuries BC.
This is contradicted by Ruth Westgate, who contends that the earliest tessellated mosaics of the
Hellenistic period
date to the 3rd century BC, with the 2nd to early 1st-century BC
mosaics of Delos
constituting roughly half of the known examples.
Hetty Joyce and
Katherine M. D. Dunbabin
concur with this assessment, asserting that the transition from
pebble
mosaics to more complex tessellated mosaics originated in Hellenistic-
Greek Sicily
during the 3rd century BC, developed at sites such as
Morgantina
and
Syracuse
.
The earliest known
pebble mosaics
and use of
chip pavement
are found at
Olynthus
in Greece's
Chalcidice
, dated to the 5th to 4th centuries BC, while other examples can be found at
Pella
, capital of
Macedon
, dated to the 4th century BC.
The earliest mosaics of Roman
Pompeii
, dated to the
Pompeian First Style
of wall painting in the late 2nd and early 1st centuries BC, were clearly derived from the
Hellenistic Greek model
.
However, they contained far more figured scenes on average, less abstract design, the absence of
lead
strips, as well as an almost complete lack of complex, three-dimensional scenes utilizing
polychromy
until the
Pompeian Second Style
of wall painting (80?20 BC).
The mosaics in the
Villa Romana del Casale
(
c.
300 AD
) from
Roman Sicily
perhaps represent the hallmark of mosaic art in the
Late Imperial period
. The mosaic decoration of the local palace complex culminates in the gallery, which contains a scene of animal hunting and fighting covering an area of 3,200 square feet (300 m
2
).
[10]
Technology
[
edit
]
Roman mosaics are constructed from geometrical blocks called
tesserae
,
placed together to create the shapes of figures, motifs and patterns.
Materials for tesserae were obtained from local sources of natural stone, with the additions of cut brick, tile and pottery creating coloured shades of, predominantly, blue, black, red, white and yellow.
Polychrome patterns were most common, but
monochrome
examples are known.
Marble and glass were occasionally used as tesserae,
as were small pebbles,
and precious metals like
gold
.
Mosaic decoration was not just confined to floors but featured on walls and vaults as well. Traces of guidelines have been found beneath some mosaics, either scored into or painted onto the mortar bedding. The design might also be pegged out in string,
or mounted in a wooden frame.
The collapse of buildings in antiquity can, paradoxically, both irrevocably destroy mosaics or protect and preserve them.
Imagery
[
edit
]
Roman mosaics frequently depicted religious figures, theatrical scenes, mythological stories, geometric labyrinth patterns, and other decorative designs.
[17]
[18]
[19]
Portraits
[
edit
]
Imagery of famous individuals or entertaining scenes are common on Roman mosaics. The
Alexander Mosaic
from the
House of the Faun
,
Pompeii
depicts the
Battle of Issus
between
Alexander the Great
and
Darius III
.
[20]
In addition to famous people from antiquity, mosaics can depict aspects of daily life. The
Gladiator Mosaic
from
Rome
depicts a fighting scene, naming each gladiator involved. A gladiatorial scene is also known from
Leptis Magna
.
[21]
Roman portrait mosaics, as well as Roman portraits in general, often depicted men and women with similar physical features or attire. This practice became especially commonplace during the Imperial Period and dates back to as early as 18 BC. There is evidence for this in a series of Denarii (Roman silver coins), which portray the goddess
Virtus
with recognizable Augustan features.
[22]
Geometric Mosaics
[
edit
]
One common type of Roman mosaics are geometric mosaics, which there is evidence for all across the Roman Empire. Geometric mosaics are often made up of intricate patterns in the style of mazes or labyrinths. There are 57 known floor mosaics in the style of labyrinths, and the majority of them are found in private homes or bathhouses. All 57 were catalogued in 1977 by German archaeologist, Wiktor Daszewski.
[23]
Scholar Rebecca Molholt discusses the reasoning behind why so many of the known maze mosaics were found in bathhouses. Maze mosaics were believed to have apotropaic powers and this is reflected in many mosaics which incorporate scenes of mythical creatures or stories. Furthermore, labyrinth mosaics were considered to be bearers of good luck for those who could successfully make their way through the maze. On their way to bathe, athletes likely would walk through these mazes on their way to bathe in preparation for competition. The experience of walking along the labyrinth pattern would have likely heightened the senses, as the participants would be acutely aware of their feet along the mosaic on the floor.
[24]
Religion
[
edit
]
One of the earliest examples of
Early Christian art
in mosaic is the early 4th-century floor mosaic from
a villa at Hinton St Mary
,
Dorset
, England, which shows Christ with a
Chi-Rho
behind his head. The mosaic is now in the
British Museum
.
[10]
Orpheus mosaics
, which often include many animals drawn by the god's playing, are very common; he was also used in Early Christian art as a symbol for Christ. Scenes of
Dionysus
are another common subject.
As the Roman period merged into
Late Antiquity
, wall mosaics became the dominant form of art in grand churches, and the
gold-ground
style became usual.
Italy has a high proportion
of the surviving examples.
Emblems
[
edit
]
Progression within the mosaic technique developed the emblem, the "heart" of all mosaics. The word emblem is used to describe a small mosaic featuring a little genre scene or still life, characterised by particularly thin tesserae made separately and mounted in a central or important position in the main panel.
Recent finds
[
edit
]
2020
[
edit
]
In May 2020, the discovery of a well-preserved Roman mosaic floor dating to the 3rd century AD buried underneath a vineyard at
Negrar
is reported after about a century of searching the site of a long-lost villa.
[25]
[26]
[27]
2022
[
edit
]
In October 2022, a 1,600-year-old intact Roman mosaic measuring 20 x 6 metres was found under a building in
Al-Rastan
, Syria. Al-Rastan, a city near
Homs
in Syria that was held by rebels until 2018. The building was being excavated by Syria's General Directorate of Antiquities and Museums, and was donated by the Lebanese
Nabu Museum
to the Syrian state. At the time of excavation, it was unclear whether the building which housed the mosaic was a public bathhouse or something else. The mosaic showed mythical scenes including portraying the Roman sea god
Neptune
and 40 of his mistresses, as well as Hercules slaying the Amazon queen
Hippolyta
.
[28]
[29]
Notable examples
[
edit
]
Gallery
[
edit
]
-
-
Neptune
driving his chariot
-
Ulysses
during his journey
-
The Centaur mosaic (2nd-century), found at
Hadrian's Villa
in
Tivoli
,
Italy
.
Altes Museum
, Berlin
-
Love scene, 1st century
-
Roman mosaic depicting actors and an aulos player (House of the Tragic Poet, Pompeii)
-
Comedy Mask
-
Antioch Mosaic
-
Epiphany of
Dionysus
mosaic, from the Villa of Dionysus (2nd century AD) in
Dion, Greece
. Now in the
Archeological Museum of Dion
.
-
Judgment of Paris
, marble, limestone and glass tesserae, 115?150 AD; from the Atrium House triclinium in
Antioch-on-the-Orontes
-
The
Zliten mosaic
showing
gladiators
, 2nd century AD
-
A Roman mosaic depicting the wedding of
Dionysos
and
Ariadne
, with
Silenus
and a
satyr
, 2nd century AD,
Tunis
, Tunisia
-
A mosaic showing
Medusa
and representational figures of the
four seasons
, from
Palencia
, Spain, made between 167 and 200 AD
-
A Roman mosaic from
Piraeus
depicting Medusa, using
opus tessellatum
, 2nd century AD,
National Archaeological Museum of Athens
-
Mosaic of female athletes playing ball at the
Villa Romana del Casale
of
Piazza Armerina
, 4th century AD
-
Late Roman mosaics at Villa Romana
La Olmeda
,
Spain
, 4th-5th centuries AD
-
Triumph of
Poseidon
and
Amphitrite
showing the couple
in procession
, detail of a
mosaic
from
Cirta
,
Roman Africa
, 315?325 AD,
Louvre
-
Paleochristian
mosaic from
Santa Pudenziana
in Rome,
c.
410 AD
-
A mosaic from the Roman era Poseidon Villa in
Zeugma, Commagene
(now in the
Zeugma Mosaic Museum
) depicting
Achilles
on Skyros
disguised as a woman and
Odysseus
tricking him into revealing himself
-
Mosaic of Orpheus from Caralis, modern Cagliari (Italy), now in Archeological Museum of Turin
-
Mosaic of
Diana
bathing.
As-Suwayda
,
Syria
-
Mosaic of
Amazon
warrior engaged in combat with a
hippeus
, 4th century AD,
Louvre
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
knutson, chris (2007).
"Fishing with Ulysses and Bacchus: Two Roman Mosaics from Tunisia"
.
Gastronomica
.
7
(4): 7?9.
doi
:
10.1525/gfc.2007.7.4.7
.
ISSN
1529-3262
.
- ^
a
b
"The Hinton St Mary Mosaic"
. British Museum. 2015
. Retrieved
19 February
2015
.
- ^
"Physical Aspects of the Polytheistic Roman Style"
. Tufts University. 2005
. Retrieved
13 March
2015
.
- ^
Rawan, C. (11 March 2015).
"Roman Mosaic Discoveries Made Through Time"
. Mozaico. Archived from
the original
on 28 September 2015
. Retrieved
13 March
2015
.
- ^
Dunbabin, Katherine M. D. (30 April 2014),
"Mythology and Theatre in the Mosaics of the Graeco-Roman East"
,
Using Images in Late Antiquity
, Oxbow Books, pp. 227?252,
doi
:
10.2307/j.ctvh1dwzx.16
, retrieved
11 May
2022
- ^
Knox, E. L. Skip.
"Alexander the Great - The Battle of Issus (334)"
. History of Western Civilization, Boise State University. Archived from
the original
on 25 March 2015
. Retrieved
13 March
2015
.
- ^
"Roman mosaic found in Libya"
. News24. 14 June 2005
. Retrieved
21 February
2015
.
- ^
Varner, Eric R. (2001).
"Portraits, Plots, and Politics: "Damnatio memoriae" and the Images of Imperial Women"
.
Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome
.
46
: 41?93.
doi
:
10.2307/4238780
.
ISSN
0065-6801
.
JSTOR
4238780
.
- ^
Phillips, Anthony (1992).
"The Topology of Roman Mosaic Mazes"
.
Leonardo
.
25
(3/4): 321?329.
doi
:
10.2307/1575858
.
ISSN
0024-094X
.
JSTOR
1575858
.
S2CID
192939467
.
- ^
Molholt, Rebecca (September 2011).
"Roman Labyrinth Mosaics and the Experience of Motion"
.
The Art Bulletin
.
93
(3): 287?303.
doi
:
10.1080/00043079.2011.10786009
.
ISSN
0004-3079
.
S2CID
191483638
.
- ^
"Ancient Roman mosaic floor discovered under vines in Italy"
.
The Guardian
. 27 May 2020
. Retrieved
8 September
2020
.
- ^
"Roman mosaic floor found under Italian vineyard"
.
BBC News
. 27 May 2020
. Retrieved
8 September
2020
.
- ^
"Perfectly preserved ancient Roman mosaic floor unearthed beneath Italian vineyard"
.
www.cbsnews.com
. 28 May 2020
. Retrieved
8 September
2020
.
- ^
"
'Rare' Roman mosaic found in Rastan, Syria"
.
BBC News
. 13 October 2022
. Retrieved
13 October
2022
.
- ^
Aji, Albert (12 October 2022).
"Syria digs up 'rare' Roman mosaic in former rebel stronghold"
.
AP News
. Retrieved
13 October
2022
.
Sources
[
edit
]
- Bertoldi, Susanna (2011).
The Vatican Museums: discover the history, the works of art, the collections
[
I Musei Vaticani: conoscere la storia, le opere, le collezioni
]. Sillabe.
ISBN
978-8882712105
.
- Donaldson, M. Katherine (1965).
"A Pebble Mosaic in Peiraeus"
(PDF)
.
Hesperia: The Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens
.
34
(2): 77?88.
doi
:
10.2307/147018
.
JSTOR
147018
.
- Dunbabin, Katherine, M. D.
(1979), "Technique and Materials of Hellenistic Mosaics",
American Journal of Archaeology
,
83
(3), Archaeological Institute of America: 265?277,
doi
:
10.2307/505057
,
JSTOR
507451
,
S2CID
193097937
.
{{
citation
}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
link
)
- Dunbabin, Katherine M. D. (1999).
Mosaics of the Greek and Roman world
. Cambridge University Press.
ISBN
978-0521461436
.
- Joyce, Hetty (1979), "Form, Function and Technique in the Pavements of Delos and Pompeii",
American Journal of Archaeology
,
83
(3), Archaeological Institute of America: 253?263,
doi
:
10.2307/505056
,
JSTOR
505056
,
S2CID
191394716
.
- Neri, Elisabetta; Verita, Marco (2013). "Glass and metal analyses of gold leaf tesserae from 1st to 9th century mosaics. A contribution to technological and chronological knowledge".
Journal of Archaeological Science
.
40
(12): 4596?4606.
Bibcode
:
2013JArSc..40.4596N
.
doi
:
10.1016/j.jas.2013.07.017
.
hdl
:
2158/1297266
.
- Oliver, Andrew (2001).
"A Glass Opus Sectile Panel from Corinth"
(PDF)
.
Hesperia: The Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens
.
70
(3): 349?363.
doi
:
10.2307/3182066
.
JSTOR
3182066
.
- Packard, Pamela M. (1980).
"A Monochrome Mosaic at Isthmia"
(PDF)
.
Hesperia: The Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens
.
49
(4): 326?346.
doi
:
10.2307/147913
.
JSTOR
147913
.
- Ricciardi, Paola; Colomban, Philippe; Tournie, Aurelie; Macchiarola, Michele; Ayed, Naceur (2009). "A non-invasive study of Roman Age mosaic glass tesserae by means of Raman spectroscopy".
Journal of Archaeological Science
.
36
(11): 2551?2559.
Bibcode
:
2009JArSc..36.2551R
.
doi
:
10.1016/j.jas.2009.07.008
.
- Westgate, Ruth (2000), "Pavimenta atque emblemata vermiculata: Regional Styles in Hellenistic Mosaic and the First Mosaics at Pompeii",
American Journal of Archaeology
,
104
(2), Archaeological Institute of America: 255?275,
doi
:
10.2307/507451
,
JSTOR
507451
,
S2CID
194101486
.
- Witts, Patricia (2005).
Mosaics in Roman Britain: Stories in Stone
. Stroud: History Press.
ISBN
978-0752434216
.
External links
[
edit
]
|
---|
Roman art periods
| |
---|
Types
| |
---|
Related topics
| |
---|
Art in related cultures
| |
---|