Neoclassical architecture
, sometimes referred to as
Classical Revival
architecture, is an
architectural style
produced by the
Neoclassical movement
that began in the mid-18th century in
Italy
,
France
and
Germany
.
[1]
It became one of the most prominent architectural styles in the
Western world
.
[2]
The prevailing styles of architecture in most of Europe for the previous two centuries,
Renaissance architecture
and
Baroque architecture
, already represented partial revivals of the
Classical architecture
of
ancient Rome
and
ancient Greek architecture
, but the Neoclassical movement aimed to strip away the excesses of Late Baroque and return to a purer, more complete, and more authentic classical style, adapted to modern purposes.
Neoclassical architecture
|
Years active
| 18th century?mid-20th century
|
---|
The development of
archaeology
and published accurate records of surviving classical buildings was crucial in the emergence of Neoclassical architecture. In many countries, there was an initial wave essentially drawing on Roman architecture, followed, from about the start of the 19th century, by a second wave of
Greek Revival architecture
. This followed increased understanding of Greek survivals. As the 19th century continued, the style tended to lose its original rather austere purity in variants like the French
Empire style
. The term "neoclassical" is often used very loosely for any building using some of the classical architectural vocabulary.
In form, Neoclassical architecture emphasizes the wall rather than
chiaroscuro
and maintains separate identities to each of its parts. The style is manifested both in its details as a reaction against the
Rococo
style of naturalistic ornament, and in its architectural formulae as an outgrowth of some classicizing features of the Late Baroque architectural tradition. Therefore, the style is defined by symmetry, simple geometry, and social demands instead of ornament.
[3]
In the 21st century, a version of the style continues, sometimes called
New Classical architecture
or New Classicism.
Neoclassical architecture is a specific style and moment in the late 18th and early 19th centuries that was specifically associated with the
Enlightenment
,
empiricism
, and the study of sites by early archaeologists.
[4]
Classical architecture after about 1840 must be classified as one of a series of "revival" styles, such as
Greek
,
Renaissance
, or
Italianate
. Various historians of the 19th century have made this clear since the 1970s. Classical architecture during the 20th century is classified less as a revival, and more a return to a style that was decelerated with the advent of
Modernism
. Yet still Neoclassical architecture is beginning to be practiced again in the 21st century more in the form of
New Classical architecture
and even in
Gentrification
and
Historicism Architecture
, the Neoclassical architecture or its important elements are still being used, even when
Postmodern architecture
is dominant throughout the world.
Palladianism
edit
A return to more classical architectural forms as a reaction to the
Rococo
style can be detected in some European architecture of the earlier 18th century, most vividly represented in the Palladian architecture of Georgian
Britain
and
Ireland
. The name refers to the designs of the 16th-century Venetian architect
Andrea Palladio
.
The
Baroque
style had never truly been to the English taste. Four influential books were published in the first quarter of the 18th century which highlighted the simplicity and purity of classical architecture:
Vitruvius Britannicus
by
Colen Campbell
(1715), Palladio's
I quattro libri dell'architettura
(
The Four Books of Architecture
, 1715),
De re aedificatoria
by
Leon Battista Alberti
(first published in 1452) and
The Designs of Inigo Jones... with Some Additional Designs
(1727). The most popular was the four-volume
Vitruvius Britannicus
by Colen Campbell. The book contained architectural prints of famous British buildings that had been inspired by the great architects from Vitruvius to Palladio. At first the book mainly featured the work of
Inigo Jones
, but the later tomes contained drawings and plans by Campbell and other 18th-century architects. Palladian architecture became well established in 18th-century Britain.
At the forefront of the new school of design was the aristocratic "architect earl",
Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington
; in 1729, he and
William Kent
designed
Chiswick House
. This house was a reinterpretation of Palladio's
Villa Capra "La Rotonda"
, but purified of 16th-century elements and ornament. This severe lack of ornamentation was to be a feature of Palladianism. In 1734, William Kent and Lord Burlington designed one of England's finest examples of Palladian architecture,
Holkham Hall
in
Norfolk
. The main block of this house followed Palladio's dictates quite closely, but Palladio's low, often detached, wings of farm buildings were elevated in significance.
This classicizing vein was also detectable, to a lesser degree, in the Late Baroque architecture in Paris, such as in the
Louvre Colonnade
. This shift was even visible in Rome at the redesigned facade for
Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran
.
Neoclassicism
edit
By the mid-18th century, the movement broadened to incorporate a greater range of classical influences, including those from
Ancient Greece
. An early centre of neoclassicism was Italy, especially
Naples
, where by the 1730s court architects such as
Luigi Vanvitelli
and
Ferdinando Fuga
were recovering classical, Palladian and
Mannerist
forms in their Baroque architecture. Following their lead,
Giovanni Antonio Medrano
began to build the first truly neoclassical structures in Italy in the 1730s. In the same period,
Alessandro Pompei
introduced neoclassicism to the
Venetian Republic
, building one of the first
lapidariums
in Europe in
Verona
, in the
Doric style
(1738). During the same period, neoclassical elements were introduced to
Tuscany
by architect
Jean Nicolas Jadot de Ville-Issey
, the court architect of
Francis Stephen of Lorraine
. On Jadot's lead, an original neoclassical style was developed by
Gaspare Maria Paoletti
, transforming
Florence
into the most important centre of neoclassicism in the peninsula. In the second half of the century, Neoclassicism flourished also in
Turin
,
Milan
(
Giuseppe Piermarini
) and
Trieste
(
Matteo Pertsch
). In the latter two cities, just as in Tuscany, the sober neoclassical style was linked to the reformism of the ruling
Habsburg
enlightened monarchs.
The shift to neoclassical architecture is conventionally dated to the 1750s. It first gained influence in England and France; in England, Sir
William Hamilton
's excavations at
Pompeii
and other sites, the influence of the
Grand Tour
, and the work of
William Chambers
and
Robert Adam
, were pivotal in this regard. In France, the movement was propelled by a generation of French art students trained in Rome, and was influenced by the writings of
Johann Joachim Winckelmann
. The style was also adopted by progressive circles in other countries such as Sweden and
Russia
.
International neoclassical architecture was exemplified in
Karl Friedrich Schinkel
's buildings, especially the
Altes Museum
in Berlin, Sir
John Soane
's
Bank of England
in London and the newly built
White House
and
Capitol
in Washington, D.C. of the nascent
American Republic
. The style was international. The
Baltimore Basilica
, which was designed by
Benjamin Henry Latrobe
in 1806, is considered one of the finest examples of neoclassical architecture in the world
[
by whom?
]
.
A second neoclassic wave, more severe, more studied and more consciously archaeological, is associated with the height of the
First French Empire
. In France, the first phase of neoclassicism was expressed in the
Louis XVI style
, and the second in the styles called
Directoire
and
Empire
. Its major proponents were
Percier and Fontaine
, court architects who specialized in interior decoration.
[6]
In the decorative arts, neoclassicism is exemplified in French furniture of the Empire style; the English furniture of
Chippendale
,
George Hepplewhite
and
Robert Adam
,
Wedgwood
's
bas reliefs
and "black basaltes"
vases
, and the
Biedermeier
furniture of Austria. The Scottish architect
Charles Cameron
created palatial Italianate interiors for the German-born
Catherine the Great
in
Saint Petersburg
.
[7]
Interior design
edit
Indoors, neoclassicism made a discovery of the genuine classic interior, inspired by the rediscoveries at
Pompeii
and
Herculaneum
. These had begun in the late 1740s, but only achieved a wide audience in the 1760s, with the first luxurious volumes of tightly controlled distribution of
Le Antichita di Ercolano Esposte
(
The Antiquities of Herculaneum Exposed
). The antiquities of Herculaneum showed that even the most classicizing interiors of the
Baroque
, or the most "Roman" rooms of
William Kent
were based on
basilica
and
temple
exterior architecture turned outside in, hence their often bombastic appearance to modern eyes:
pedimented
window frames turned into
gilded
mirrors, fireplaces topped with temple fronts.
The new interiors sought to recreate an authentically Roman and genuinely interior vocabulary. Techniques employed in the style included flatter, lighter motifs, sculpted in low
frieze
-like relief or painted in monotones
en camaieu
("like cameos"), isolated medallions or vases or busts or
bucrania
or other motifs, suspended on
swags
of laurel or ribbon, with slender
arabesques
against backgrounds, perhaps, of "Pompeiian red" or pale tints, or stone colours. The style in France was initially a Parisian style, the
gout grec
("Greek taste"), not a court style; when
Louis XVI
acceded to the throne in 1774,
Marie Antoinette
, his fashion-loving Queen, brought the
Louis XVI style
to court. However, there was no real attempt to employ the basic forms of Roman furniture until around the turn of the century, and furniture-makers were more likely to borrow from ancient architecture, just as silversmiths were more likely to take from ancient pottery and stone-carving than metalwork: "Designers and craftsmen [...] seem to have taken an almost perverse pleasure in transferring motifs from one medium to another".
[8]
A
new phase in neoclassical design
was inaugurated by Robert and
James Adam
, who travelled in Italy and Dalmatia in the 1750s, observing the ruins of the classical world. On their return to Britain, they published a book entitled
The Works in Architecture
in installments between 1773 and 1779. This book of engraved designs made the Adam style available throughout Europe. The Adam brothers aimed to simplify the
Rococo
and
Baroque
styles which had been fashionable in the preceding decades, to bring what they felt to be a lighter and more elegant feel to Georgian houses.
The Works in Architecture
illustrated the main buildings the Adam brothers had worked on and crucially documented the interiors, furniture and fittings, designed by the Adams.
Greek Revival
edit
From about 1800 a fresh influx of Greek architectural examples, seen through the medium of etchings and engravings, gave a new impetus to neoclassicism, the Greek Revival. There was little direct knowledge of surviving Greek buildings before the middle of the 18th century in
Western Europe
, when an expedition funded by the
Society of Dilettanti
in 1751 and led by
James Stuart
and
Nicholas Revett
began serious archaeological enquiry. Stuart was commissioned after his return from Greece by
George Lyttelton
to produce the first Greek building in England, the garden temple at
Hagley Hall
(1758?59).
[9]
A number of British architects in the second half of the century took up the expressive challenge of the Doric from their aristocratic patrons, including
Joseph Bonomi the Elder
and
John Soane
, but it was to remain the private enthusiasm of connoisseurs up to the first decade of the 19th century.
[10]
Seen in its wider social context, Greek Revival architecture sounded a new note of sobriety and restraint in public buildings in Britain around 1800 as an assertion of
nationalism
attendant on the
Act of Union
, the
Napoleonic Wars
, and the clamour for political reform. It was to be
William Wilkins
's winning design for the public competition for
Downing College, Cambridge
, that announced the Greek style was to be the dominant idiom in architecture. Wilkins and
Robert Smirke
went on to build some of the most important buildings of the era, including the
Theatre Royal
,
Covent Garden
(1808?1809), the
General Post Office
(1824?1829) and the
British Museum
(1823?1848), Wilkins
University College London
(1826?1830) and the
National Gallery
(1832?1838). In Scotland,
Thomas Hamilton
(1784?1858), in collaboration with the artists
Andrew Wilson
(1780?1848) and
Hugh William Williams
(1773?1829) created monuments and buildings of international significance; the Burns Monument at Alloway (1818) and the
Royal High School, Edinburgh
(1823?1829).
At the same time the
Empire style
in France was a more grandiose wave of neoclassicism in architecture and the decorative arts. Mainly based on Imperial Roman styles, it originated in, and took its name from, the rule of
Napoleon I
in the
First French Empire
, where it was intended to idealize Napoleon's leadership and the French state. The style corresponds to the more bourgeois
Biedermeier
style in the German-speaking lands,
Federal style
in the United States, the
Regency style
in Britain, and the
Napoleonstil
in Sweden. According to the art historian
Hugh Honour
"so far from being, as is sometimes supposed, the culmination of the Neo-classical movement, the Empire marks its rapid decline and transformation back once more into a mere antique revival, drained of all the high-minded ideas and force of conviction that had inspired its masterpieces".
[11]
-
-
-
Bordeaux Courthouse,
Bordeaux
,
France
, unknown architect, 1839-1846
-
Royal Scottish Academy
,
Edinburgh
,
Scotland
, unknown architect, unknown date
-
Propylaea (Munich)
, Germany, by
Leo von Klenze
, finished in 1862
-
-
Friedrich-von-Thiersch hall of the
Kurhaus, Wiesbaden
, Germany, 1905-1907, by
Friedrich von Thiersch
Characteristics
edit
High neoclassicism was an international movement. Architects reacted against the excesses and profuse ornament used in Late
Baroque architecture
. The new "classical" architecture emphasized planar qualities, rather than elaborate sculptural ornament in both the interior and the exterior. Projections and recessions and their effects of
light and shade
were more flat; sculptural bas-reliefs were flat and tended to be framed by friezes, tablets or panels. This was the first "stripped down" classical architecture, and appeared to be modern in the context of the Revolutionary period in Europe. At its most elemental, as in the work of
Etienne-Louis Boullee
, it was highly abstract and geometrically pure.
[12]
Neoclassicism also influenced city planning. The ancient Romans had used a consolidated scheme for city planning for both defence and civil convenience; however, the roots of this scheme go back to even older civilizations. At its most basic, the
grid system
of streets, a central forum with city services, two main slightly wider boulevards, and the occasional diagonal street were characteristic of the very logical and orderly Roman design. Ancient facades and building layouts were oriented to these city design patterns and they tended to work in proportion with the importance of public buildings.
Many of these
urban planning
patterns found their way into the first modern
planned cities
of the 18th century. Exceptional examples include
Karlsruhe
, Washington, D.C., Saint Petersburg, Buenos Aires, Havana, and Barcelona. Contrasting models may be found in Modernist designs exemplified by
Brasilia
, the
Garden city movement
, and
levittowns
.
Regional trends
edit
The first phase of
neoclassicism in France
is expressed in the
Louis XV style
of architect
Ange-Jacques Gabriel
(
Petit Trianon
, 1762?1768); the second phase, in the styles called
Directoire
and
Empire
, might be characterized by
Jean Chalgrin
's severe astylar
Arc de Triomphe
(designed in 1806). In England the two phases might be characterized first by the structures of
Robert Adam
, the second by those of Sir
John Soane
. The interior style in France was initially a Parisian style, the "
Gout grec
" ("Greek style") not a court style. Only when the young King
Louis XVI
acceded to the throne in 1774 did
Marie Antoinette
, his fashion-loving Queen, bring the Louis XVI style to court.
Many early 19th-century neoclassical architects were influenced by the drawings and projects of
Etienne-Louis Boullee
and
Claude Nicolas Ledoux
. The many graphite drawings of Boullee and his students depict spare geometrical architecture that emulates the eternality of the universe. There are links between Boullee's ideas and
Edmund Burke
's conception of the
sublime
. Ledoux addressed the concept of architectural character, maintaining that a building should immediately communicate its function to the viewer: taken literally, such ideas give rise to
architecture parlante
("speaking architecture").
From about 1800 a fresh influx of Greek architectural examples, seen through the medium of etchings and engravings, gave a new impetus to neoclassicism that is called the
Greek Revival
. Although several European cities ? notably
Saint Petersburg
,
Athens
, Berlin and
Munich
? were transformed into veritable museums of Greek revival architecture, the Greek Revival in France was never popular with either the state or the public.
Neoclassical architecture became a symbol of national pride during the 18th century in Germany, in what was then
Prussia
.
Karl Friedrich Schinkel
built many notable buildings in this style, including the
Altes Museum
in Berlin. While the city remained dominated by Baroque city planning, his architecture and functional style provided the city with a distinctly neoclassical center.
Schinkel's work is very comparable to Neoclassical architecture in Britain since he drew much of his inspiration from that country. He made trips to observe the buildings and develop his functional style.
[3]
Great Britain and Ireland
edit
From the middle of the 18th century, exploration and publication changed the course of British architecture from the
Palladian architecture
towards a purer vision of the Ancient Greco-Roman ideal.
James 'Athenian' Stuart
's work
The Antiquities of Athens and Other Monuments of Greece
was very influential in this regard, as were
Robert Wood
's
Palmyra
and
Baalbec
. A combination of simple forms and high levels of enrichment was adopted by the majority of contemporary British architects and designers. The revolution begun by Stuart was soon to be eclipsed by the work of the
Adam brothers
,
James Wyatt
,
Sir William Chambers
,
George Dance the Younger
,
James Gandon
, and provincially based architects such as
John Carr
and
Thomas Harrison
of
Chester
.
In
Scotland
and the north of England, where the
Gothic Revival
was less strong, architects continued to develop the neoclassical style of
William Henry Playfair
. The works of
Cuthbert Brodrick
and
Alexander Thomson
show that by the end of the 19th century the results could be powerful and eccentric.
In
Ireland
, where
Gothic Revival
was also less popular, a refined, restrained form of the neoclassical developed, and can be seen in the works of
James Gandon
and other architects working at the time. It is particularly evident in
Dublin
, which is a largely neoclassical and Georgian city.
After the establishment of the
Kingdom of Greece
in 1832, the architecture of Greece was mostly influenced by the Neoclassical architecture. For Athens, the first King of Greece,
Otto I
, commissioned the architects
Stamatios Kleanthis
and
Eduard Schaubert
to design a modern city plan. The
Old Royal Palace
was the first important public building to be built, between 1836 and 1843. Later, in the mid- and late 19th century,
Theophil Hansen
and
Ernst Ziller
took part in the construction of many neoclassical buildings. Theophil Hansen designed his first building, the
National Observatory of Athens
, and two of the three contiguous buildings forming the so-called "Athens Classical Trilogy", namely the
Academy of Athens
(1859) and the
National Library of Greece
(1888), the third building of the trilogy being the
National and Capodistrian University of Athens
(1843), which was designed by his brother
Christian Hansen
. Also he designed the
Zappeion
Hall (1888). Ernst Ziller also designed many private mansions in the centre of Athens which gradually became public, usually through donations, such the mansion of
Heinrich Schliemann
,
Iliou Melathron
(1880). The city of
Nauplio
is also an important example of Neoclassical architecture along with the islands of
Poros
and
Syros
(especially in the capital
Ermoupoli
).
The earliest examples of neoclassical architecture in Hungary may be found in
Vac
. In this town the triumphal arch and the neoclassical facade of the Baroque Cathedral were designed by the French architect Isidor Marcellus Amandus Ganneval (Isidore Canevale) in the 1760s. Also the work of a French architect,
Jean-Charles-Alexandre Moreau
, is the garden facade of the
Esterhazy Palace
(1797?1805) in Kismarton (today
Eisenstadt
in Austria).
The two principal architects of Neoclassicism in Hungary were
Mihaly Pollack
and
Jozsef Hild
. Pollack's major work is the
Hungarian National Museum
(1837?1844). Hild is famous for his designs for the Cathedral of
Eger
and
Esztergom
. The
Reformed Great Church of Debrecen
is an outstanding example of the many Protestant churches that were built in the first half of the 19th century. This was the time of the first iron structures in Hungarian architecture, the most important of which is the
Szechenyi Chain Bridge
by
William Tierney Clark
.
Although not a western country, due to Western influence Japan has had neoclassical architecture produced in it. This includes the unique
Hiko Shrine
?[
ja
]
which is a
Shinto shrine
based on
Greek temples
. It later developed into the
Imperial Crown Style
which contains elements of both Eastern and Western design
[13]
Roofs are notably distinctly Asian in this style and it was used heavily by the
Japanese Empire
in its colonies.
[14]
[15]
[16]
Neoclassical architecture was introduced in Malta in the late 18th century, during the final years of
Hospitaller rule
. Early examples include the
Bibliotheca
(1786),
[17]
the
De Rohan Arch
(1798)
[18]
and the
Hompesch Gate
(1801).
[19]
However, neoclassical architecture only became popular in Malta following the
establishment of British rule
in the early 19th century. In 1814, a neoclassical
portico
decorated with the British coat of arms was added to the
Main Guard
building so as to serve as a symbol of British Malta. Other 19th-century neoclassical buildings include the
Monument to Sir Alexander Ball
(1810),
RNH Bighi
(1832),
St Paul's Pro-Cathedral
(1844), the
Rotunda of Mosta
(1860) and the now-destroyed
Royal Opera House, Valletta
(1866).
[20]
Neoclassicism gave way to other architectural styles by the late 19th century. Few buildings were built in the neoclassical style during the 20th century, such as the
Domvs Romana
museum (1922),
[21]
and the
Courts of Justice building (Valletta)
(1965?1971).
[22]
As part of the
Spanish Enlightenment
's cultural impact on the Kingdom of
New Spain
(Mexico), the crown established the
Academy of San Carlos
in 1785 to train painters, sculptors, and architects in New Spain, under the direction of the peninsular
Geronimo Antonio Gil
.
[23]
The academy emphasized neoclassicism, which drew on the inspiration of the clean lines of Greek and Roman architecture, but also, for some monuments, from the Aztec and Mayan architectural traditions.
[24]
Neoclassicism in Mexican architecture was directly linked to crown policies that sought to rein in the exuberance of the
New Spanish Baroque
, and to create public buildings of "good taste" funded by the crown, such as the
Palacio de Mineria
in Mexico City, the
Hospicio Cabanas
in Guadalajara, and the
Alhondiga de Granaditas
in
Guanajuato
, all built in the late colonial era.
[25]
Rest of Latin America
edit
The Neoclassical style arrived in the American empires of
Spain
and
Portugal
through projects designed in Europe or carried out locally by European or
Criollo
architects trained in the academies of the
metropolis
. There are also examples of the adaptation to the local architectural language, which during previous centuries had made a synthesis or syncretism of European and pre-Columbian elements in the so-called Colonial Baroque.
Two more Classical criteria belong, in
Chile
, the
La Moneda Palace
(1784?1805) and the
Santiago Metropolitan Cathedral
(1748?1899), both works by the Italian architect
Joaquin Toesca
. In Ecuador, the Quito's
Palacio de Carondelet
(Ecuador's Government Palace) built between 1611?1801 by Antonio Garcia. At the dawn of the independence of Hispanic America, constructive programs were developed in the new republics. Neoclassicism was introduced in
New Granada
by
Marcelino Perez de Arroyo
. Later, in
Colombia
, the
Capitolio Nacional
was built in
Bogota
between 1848?1926 by
Thomas Reed
, trained at the Berlin
Bauakademie
; the
Primatial Cathedral of Bogota
(1807?1823), designed by Friar
Domingo de Petres
; and in
Peru
the
Basilica Cathedral of Arequipa
built between 1540?1844 by
Lucas Poblete
.
Brazil
, which became the seat of the court of the
Portuguese monarchy
, gaining independence from its metropolis as the
Empire of Brazil
, also used the resources of architecture for the glorification of political power, and it was decided to resort to architects trained in the
Academie royale d'architecture
. To this period belong the portal of the
Imperial Academy of Fine Arts
in
Rio de Janeiro
made in 1826 and the
Imperial Palace of Petropolis
built between 1845?1862.
Argentina
is another of the countries that seeks to shed its colonial past, but in the context of the reorganization of the country after independence in 1810, an aspect of power was sought that transmitted the presence of the State, inspiring respect and devotion, including of course the architecture. However, a style of its own was not conceived, but the Classical canon was introduced, not in the form of a replica of buildings from Antiquity, but with a classical predominance and a lot of influence from
French Classicism
; which lasted until the 20th century.
-
-
Santiago Metropolitan Cathedral
, Chile (1748-1906) by Joaquin Toesca and Ignacio Cremonesi
-
Palacio de Carondelet
Quito
, Ecuador built between (1611?1801) by Antonio Garcia
-
Primatial Cathedral of Bogota
, Bogota, Colombia (1807?1823) by Friar Domingo de Petres
-
Palace of Justice, Lima
, Peru (1939) by Bruno Paprowsky
-
Imperial Palace of Petropolis
, Petropolis, Brazil (1845?1862) by Julius Friedrich Koeler
-
Buenos Aires Metropolitan Cathedral
, (Buenos Aires, Argentina) (1754?1823) by Antonio Masella and Prosper Catelin
-
-
Philippines
edit
Like most western tradition, it arrived in the Pacific Archipelagos via rule from New Spain (Mexico) during the period of governance by Mexico City as one of the best preferred architecture in the
Spanish East Indies
, manifested in churches, civic buildings and one of the popular architectural ornament for newer styled
Bahay na bato
and
Bahay kubo
. When the power over the archipelago was transferred from Spain to the United States of America, the style became more popular and developed from slightly simple approach during the Spanish era, to a more ornamented style of the
Beaux-Arts architecture
sparked by the return of massive number of architectural students to the islands from the western schools. It also became a symbol of democracy and the approaching republic during the
commonwealth
.
Polish?Lithuanian Commonwealth
edit
The centre of Polish Neoclassicism was
Warsaw
under the rule of the last Polish king,
Stanisław August Poniatowski
.
Vilnius University
was another important centre of the Neoclassical architecture in Europe, led by the notable professors of architecture
Marcin Knackfus
,
Laurynas Gucevicius
and
Karol Podczaszy?ski
. The style was expressed in the shape of main public buildings, such as the
Vilnius University Astronomical Observatory
,
Vilnius Cathedral
and the
town hall
.
The best-known architects and artists, who worked in the
Polish?Lithuanian Commonwealth
were
Dominik Merlini
,
Jan Chrystian Kamsetzer
,
Szymon Bogumił Zug
,
Jakub Kubicki
,
Antonio Corazzi
,
Efraim Szreger
,
Chrystian Piotr Aigner
and
Bertel Thorvaldsen
.
In the
Russian Empire
at the end of the 19th century, neoclassical architecture was equal to
Saint Petersburg
architecture because this style was specific for a huge number of buildings in the city.
Catherine the Great
adopted the style during her reign by allowing the architect
Jean-Baptiste Vallin de la Mothe
to build the Old Hermitage and the
Imperial Academy of Arts
.
[3]
Spanish Neoclassicism was exemplified by the work of
Juan de Villanueva
, who adapted
Edmund Burke
's theories of beauty and the sublime to the requirements of Spanish climate and history. He built the
Museo del Prado
, which combined three functions: an academy, an auditorium, and a museum in one building with three separate entrances.
This was part of the ambitious program of
Charles III
, who intended to make Madrid the Capital of the Arts and Sciences. Very close to the museum, Villanueva built the
Royal Observatory of Madrid
. He also designed several summer houses for the kings in
El Escorial
and
Aranjuez
and reconstructed the
Plaza Mayor, Madrid
, among other important works. Villanueva's pupils expanded the Neoclassical style in Spain.
United States
edit
In the new republic,
Robert Adam
's neoclassical manner was adapted for the local late 18th- and early 19th-century style, called
Federal architecture
. One of the pioneers of this style was the English-born
Benjamin Henry Latrobe
, who is often noted as one of America's first formally trained professional architects and the father of American architecture. The
Baltimore Basilica
, the first
Roman Catholic
cathedral in the United States, is considered by many experts to be Latrobe's masterpiece.
Another notable American architect who is identified with Federal architecture was
Thomas Jefferson
. He was very interested in the building he saw in Paris when he served there as ambassador, and built several neoclassical buildings, with his own innovations, including his personal estate
Monticello
, the
Virginia State Capitol
, and the
University of Virginia
.
[3]
A second neoclassical manner found in the United States during the 19th century was called
Greek Revival architecture
. It differs from Federal architecture as it strictly follows the Greek idiom, however it was used to describe all buildings of the
Neoclassicism
period that display classical orders.
[27]
See also
edit
References
edit
- ^
"Western architecture - German Gothic, Baroque, Renaissance | Britannica"
.
- ^
"Neoclassical architecture"
.
Encyclopædia Britannica
. Retrieved
7 July
2017
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
Middleton, Robin. (1993).
Neoclassical and 19th century architecture
. Electa.
ISBN
0-8478-0850-5
.
OCLC
444534819
.
- ^
See, for instance, Joseph Rykwert,
The First Moderns: the architects of the eighteenth century
(Cambridge,
MIT Press
: 1980) and Alberto Perez Gomez,
Architecture and the Crisis of Modern Science
, (Cambridge, MIT Press: 1983)
- ^
"Andrea Palladio 1508?1580"
. Irish Architectural Archive. 2010
. Retrieved
23 September
2018
.
- ^
Barry Bergdoll, Ed.,
The Complete Works of Percier and Fontaine
, (New York, Princeton Architectural Press: 2018)
- ^
"Neoclassical Architecture (1640?1850)"
.
www.visual-arts-cork.com
. Retrieved
7 July
2017
.
- ^
Honour, 110?111, 110 quoted
- ^
Though
Giles Worsley
detects the first Grecian influenced architectural element in the windows of
Nuneham House
from 1756, see
Giles Worsley
, "The First Greek Revival Architecture",
The Burlington Magazine
, Vol. 127, No. 985 (April 1985), pp. 226?229.
- ^
Joseph Mordant Crook,
The Greek Revival: neoclassical attitudes in British architecture, 1760?1870
(London, John Murray: 1972)
- ^
Honour, 171?184, 171 quoted
- ^
Robin Middleton and David Watkin,
NeoClassical and Nineteenth Century Architecture
2 vols. (New York, Electa/Rizzoli: 1987)
- ^
Francis Chia-Hui Lin (9 January 2015).
Heteroglossic Asia: The Transformation of Urban Taiwan
. Taylor & Francis. pp.?85?.
ISBN
978-1-317-62637-4
.
- ^
Yukiko Koga (28 November 2016).
Inheritance of Loss: China, Japan, and the Political Economy of Redemption after Empire
. University of Chicago Press. pp.?290?.
ISBN
978-0-226-41227-6
.
- ^
Sat?, Yoshiaki (2006). "Chapter 5 Appendix: 帝冠?式について" [About Imperial Crown Style].
神奈川??本??と大正昭和初期の神奈川?技術者に?する建築史的?究
[
Architecture Historical Research of the Kanagawa Prefecture Main Office Building and the early Taish? Sh?wa Kanagawa Prefecture Engineers
] (in Japanese).
- ^
Morohashi, Kaz (Winter 2015).
"Museums in Japan"
.
e-magazine
. Norwich,UK: Sainsbury Institute for the Study of Japanese Arts and Culture
. Retrieved
9 August
2018
.
- ^
"Bibliotheca"
(PDF)
.
National Inventory of the Cultural Property of the Maltese Islands
. 28 December 2012. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 6 December 2015.
- ^
"Rohan Gate, ?ebbu?"
.
Times of Malta
. 11 December 2012. Archived from
the original
on 4 December 2015.
- ^
Botig, Klaus (2011).
Malta, Gozo. Con atlante stradale
(in Italian). EDT srl. p.?54.
ISBN
9788860407818
.
- ^
"Architecture in Malta under the British"
.
culturemalta.org
. Archived from
the original
on 7 October 2015.
- ^
"Domvs Romana"
.
Heritage Malta
. Archived from
the original
on 5 January 2015.
- ^
"The Courts"
.
The Judiciary ? Malta
. Archived from
the original
on 6 January 2015.
- ^
Jean Charlot,
Mexican Art and the Academy of San Carlos, 1785?1915
. Austin: University of Texas Press 1962, p. 25
- ^
https://read.dukeupress.edu/hahr/article/54/3/525/151178/Los-origenes-del-nacionalismo-mexicano
- ^
James Oles,
Art and Architecture in Mexico
. London: Thames and Hudson 2013, pp.132?33, 150.
- ^
"Datos curiosos de la Parroquia de San Jose Iturbide"
.
iturbide.travel
(in Spanish). 10 July 2019.
- ^
Pierson, William Harvey (1976).
American buildings and their architects
. Anchor Press/Doubleday.
OCLC
605187550
.
Further reading
edit
- Detournelle, Athanase,
Recueil d'architecture nouvelle
, A Paris?: Chez l'auteur, 1805
- Groth, Hakan,
Neoclassicism in the North: Swedish Furniture and Interiors, 1770?1850
- Honour, Hugh,
Neoclassicism
- Irwin, David,
Neoclassicism
(in series Art and Ideas) Phaidon, paperback, 1997
- Lorentz, Stanislaw,
Neoclassicism in Poland
(Series History of art in Poland)
- McCormick, Thomas,
Charles-Louis Clerisseau and the Genesis of Neoclassicism
Architectural History Foundation, 1991
- Praz, Mario.
On Neoclassicism
External links
edit