Jules Michelet
(
French:
[?yl
mi?l?]
; 21 August 1798 ? 9 February 1874)
[3]
was a French
historian
and
writer
. He is best known for his multivolume work
Histoire de France
(History of France),
[4]
which traces the history of France from the earliest times to the
French Revolution
. He is considered one of the founders of modern
historiography
. Michelet was influenced by
Giambattista Vico
. He admired Vico's emphasis on the role of people and their customs in shaping history, which was a major departure from the emphasis on political and military leaders.
[5]
Michelet also drew inspiration from Vico's concept of the "corsi e ricorsi", or the cyclical nature of history, in which societies rise and fall in a recurring pattern.
In
Histoire de France
he coined the term
Renaissance
(meaning "rebirth" in French) as a period in Europe's cultural history that represented a break from the
Middle Ages
, creating a modern understanding of humanity and its place in the world. (The term "rebirth" and its association with the Renaissance can be traced to a work published in 1550 by the
Italian
art historian
Giorgio Vasari
. Vasari used the term to describe the advent of a new manner of painting that began with the work of
Giotto
, as the "rebirth (
rinascita
) of the arts" Michelet thereby became the first historian to use and define the French translation of the term,
Renaissance
,
[6]
to identify the period in Europe's cultural history that followed the
Middle Ages
.
[7]
Historian
Francois Furet
wrote that Michelet's
Histoire de France
remains "the cornerstone of all revolutionary historiography and is also a literary monument."
[8]
Michelet's father was a master printer and Jules assisted him in the work of the press. At one time, a place was offered to him in the imperial printing office, but his father was able to send him to the famous College or
Lycee Charlemagne
, where he distinguished himself. He passed the university examination in 1821 and was soon appointed to a professorship of history in the
College Rollin
.
[3]
Soon after this, in 1824, he married Pauline Rousseau. This was one of the most favourable periods ever for scholars and
men of letters
in France, and Michelet had powerful patrons in
Abel-Francois Villemain
and
Victor Cousin
, among others. Although he was an ardent politician (having from his childhood embraced
republicanism
and a peculiar variety of romantic free-thought), he was, above all, a man of letters and an inquirer into the history of the past. His earliest works were school textbooks.
[3]
Between 1825 and 1827 he produced diverse sketches, chronological tables and other works relating to modern history. His
precis
of the subject was published in 1827. In the same year he was appointed
maitre de conferences
at the
Ecole normale superieure
.
[3]
Four years later, in 1831, the
Introduction a l'histoire universelle
showed a very different style, exhibiting the
idiosyncrasy
and literary power of the writer to greater advantage, but also displaying, according to the
Encyclopædia Britannica
(Eleventh Edition), "the peculiar visionary qualities which made Michelet the most stimulating, but the most untrustworthy (not in facts, which he never consciously falsifies, but in suggestion) of all historians."
[3]
The events of 1830 had placed Michelet in a better position for study by obtaining him a place in the Record Office and a deputy-professorship under the historian
Guizot
in the literary faculty of the university. Soon afterward he began his chief and monumental work, the
Histoire de France
, which would take 30 years to complete. But he accompanied this with numerous other books, chiefly of erudition, such as the
Œuvres choisies de Vico
, the
Memoires de Luther ecrits par lui-meme
, the
Origines du droit francais
, and somewhat later, the
le Proces des Templiers
.
[3]
1838 was a year of great importance in Michelet's life. During that time, he was in the fullness of his powers. His studies had fed his natural aversion to the principles of authority and ecclesiasticism, and at a moment when the revived activity of the
Jesuits
caused some pretended alarm, he was appointed to the chair of history at the
College de France
. Assisted by his friend
Edgar Quinet
, he began a violent polemic against the unpopular religious order and the principles that it represented, a polemic that made their lectures, especially Michelet's, among the most popular of the day.
[3]
His first wife died in 1839 and he would remain unmarried for a decade. He published his
Histoire romaine
in that year, but this was in his graver and earlier manner. The results of his lectures appeared in the volumes
Du pretre
,
de la femme et de la famille
and
Le peuple
. These books do not display the apocalyptic style which, partly borrowed from
Lamennais
, characterizes Michelet's later works, but they contain, in miniature, almost the whole of his curious ethico-politico-theological creed?a mixture of
sentimentalism
,
communism
, and anti-
sacerdotalism
, supported by the most eccentric arguments, but urged with a great deal of eloquence.
[3]
The principles of the
outbreaks of 1848
were in the air and Michelet was one of many who condensed and propagated them: his original lectures were of so incendiary a kind that the course had to be interdicted. However, when the revolution broke out, Michelet, unlike many other men of letters, did not attempt to enter active political life. He merely devoted himself more strenuously to his literary work. Besides continuing his great history, he undertook and carried out an enthusiastic
Histoire de la Revolution francaise
during the years between the downfall of
Louis Philippe
and the final establishment of
Napoleon III
.
[3]
At the age of 51, he married his second wife,
Athenais Michelet
in 1849. She was 23 years old and an author who wrote in natural history and memoirs. She had been a teacher in
St. Petersburg
before their extensive correspondence led to marriage. They entered into a shared literary life and she would assist him significantly in his endeavors as well. He openly acknowledged this, although she never was given credit in his works.
After the coup d'etat by Napoleon III in 1851, Michelet lost his position in the Record Office when he refused to take the oaths to the empire. The new regime kindled afresh his republican zeal, further stimulated by his second marriage to
Athenais (nee Mialaret)
, a lady of some literary capacity as a natural history writer and memoirist, who had republican sympathies.
While his great work of history remained his main pursuit, a crowd of little books accompanied and diversified it. Sometimes they were expanded versions of its episodes, sometimes what may be called commentaries or companion volumes. The first of these was
Les Femmes de la Revolution
(1854), in which Michelet's
dithyrambic
often gives way to tedious and inconclusive writing.
L'Insecte
followed. It was succeeded by
L'Amour
(1859), one of Michelet's most popular books.
In the next,
L'Oiseau
(1856), a new and most successful vein was struck: The subject of natural history, a new subject with Michelet to which his wife introduced him. It was treated from the point of view of Michelet's
pantheism
,
[3]
instead of science or sentiment.
Vincent van Gogh
inscribed his drawing,
Sorrow
, with a quote from "
La Femme
":
"
Comment se fait-il qu'il y ait sur la terre une femme seule?
"
, which translates to
How can there be on earth a woman alone?
These works, half pamphlets, half moral treatises, succeeded each other at twelve-month intervals, as a rule, and the succession was almost unbroken for five or six years.
La Femme
(1860) followed
L'Amour
. It was a book on which a whole critique of French literature and French character might be founded.
[3]
Vincent van Gogh
inscribed a quote he took from
La Femme
on his drawing,
Sorrow
.
[9]
It reads,
"
Comment se fait-il qu'il y ait sur la terre une femme seule?
"
(
How can there be on earth a woman alone?
).
La Mer
followed in 1861, a return to the natural history class, which was viewed as underperforming considering Michelet's affinity to the subject.
[
citation needed
]
The next year (1862) one of Michelet's more successful minor works,
La Sorciere
, was published. Developed out of an episode of history, it has strong hints of Michelet's more unusual views. It was eventually adapted by
animation studio
Mushi Production
into
animated
art film
,
Belladonna of Sadness
, directed by
Eiichi Yamamoto
.
This series, every volume of which combined imagination and research, was not yet finished, but the later volumes exhibit a certain falling off. The
Bible de l'humanite
(1864), a historical sketch of religions, was not well received. In
La Montagne
(1868), the last of the natural history series, the Michelet uses the
staccato
style, which creates short and disjointed sentences, but creates tension.
Portrait of Jules Michelet painted by
Thomas Couture
, c. 1865
Nos fils
(1869), the last of the smaller books published during the author's life, is a tractate on education, written with knowledge and highlights Michelet's research capabilities. Some critics say it also highlights Michhelet's decreasing capability to express himself. However, in a book published posthumously,
Le Banquet
, critics say this issue disappears. The picture of the industrious and famishing populations of the Riviera is (whether true to fact or not) noted to be one of the better pieces that Michelet has written. To complete the list of his miscellaneous works, two collections of pieces, written and partly published at different times, are the works
Les Soldats de la revolution
and
Legendes democratiques du nord
.
[3]
Michelet's
Origines du droit francais, cherchees dans les symboles et les formules du droit universel
was edited by
Emile Faguet
in 1890 and went into a second edition in 1900. The publication of this series of books, and the completion of his history, occupied Michelet during both decades of the empire. He lived partly in France, partly in Italy, and was accustomed to spending the winter on the Riviera, chiefly at
Hyeres
.
[3]
"Histoire de France" redirects here. For the history of France, see
History of France
.
Photograph of Jules Michelet, late in his career
At last, in 1867, the great work of his life,
Histoire de France
, was finished. In the usual edition it fills nineteen volumes. The first of these deals with the early history up to the death of Charlemagne, the second with the flourishing time of feudal France, the third with the thirteenth century, the fourth, fifth, and sixth volumes with the
Hundred Years' War
, the seventh and eighth with the establishment of the royal power under
Charles VII
and
Louis XI
. The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries have four volumes apiece, much of which is very distantly connected with French history proper, especially in the two volumes entitled
Renaissance
and
Reforme
. The last three volumes carry on the history of the eighteenth century to the outbreak of the Revolution.
[3]
Michelet abhorred the Middle Ages and celebrated their end as a radical transformation. He attempted to clarify how a lively
Renaissance
could originate from an ossified medieval culture.
[10]
[11]
Michelet has several themes running throughout his works, these included the following three categories: maleficent, beneficent, and paired. Within each of the three themes there are subsets of ideas that occur throughout Michelet's various works. One of these themes was the idea of paired themes, for example in many of his works he writes on grace and justice, grace being the woman or feminine, and justice being more of a masculine idea. Michelet, additionally, used union and unity in his discussions about national history, and natural history. In terms of the maleficent themes, there were subcategories these were: themes of the dry, which included concepts such as: the machine, the Jesuits, scribes, the electric, irony (
Goethe
), the Scholastics, public safety, and
fatalism
(
Hobbes
, Molinos,
Spinoza
,
Hegel
). Themes of the empty and the turgid included the Middle Ages, the imitation, tedium, the novel, narcotics, Alexander, and plethoric (engorged blood). Michelet also touches on themes of the indeterminate such as the Honnete-Hommes, Conde', Chantilly Sade, gambling, phantasmagoria, Italian comedy, white blood, and sealed blood.
[12]
Martial dualism is a prominent theme for him, with a "war of man against nature, spirit against matter, liberty against fatality. History is nothing other than the record of this interminable struggle."
[13]
Leading some to describe him as a "
Manichaean
dualist."
His framing of history as a struggle between Christian spirit and liberty against Jewish matter, fatality, and tyranny, is seen by intellectual historian
David Nirenberg
as an example of
anti-judaism
as a constituent conceptual tool in western thought.
Michelet was perhaps the first historian to devote himself to anything resembling a picturesque history of the
Middle Ages
and his account is still one of the most vivid that exists. His inquiry into manuscript and printed authorities was most laborious, but his lively imagination, and his strong religious and political prejudices, made him regard all things from a singularly personal point of view.
[3]
There is an unevenness of treatment of historical incidents. However, Michelet's insistence that
history should concentrate on "the people
, and not only its leaders or its institutions"
[16]
clearly drew inspiration from the French Revolution. Michelet was one of the first historians to apply these liberal principles to historical scholarship.
Uncompromisingly hostile as Michelet was to the empire, its downfall in 1870 in the midst of France's defeat by Prussia and the rise and fall of the Paris Commune during the following year, once more stimulated him to activity. Not only did he write letters and pamphlets during the struggle, but when it was over he was determined to complete the vast task that his two great histories had almost covered by a
Histoire du XIXe siecle
. He did not, however, live to carry it farther than the
Battle of Waterloo
, and the best criticism of it is perhaps contained in the opening words of the introduction to the last volume?"
l'age me presse
" ("age hurries me").
The new republic was not altogether a restoration for Michelet, and his professorship at the
College de France
, of which he always contended he had been unjustly deprived, was not given back to him.
[3]
He was also a supporter of the Romanian National Awakening movements.
As a young man, Michelet married Pauline Rousseau in 1824. She died in 1839. Michelet married his second wife,
Athenais Michelet
in 1849. His second wife had been a teacher in St. Petersburg and was an author in the field of natural history and memoirs. She had opened a correspondence with him arising from her ardent admiration of his ideas that ensued for years. They became engaged before they had seen each other. After their marriage, she collaborated with him in his labors albeit without formal credit, introduced him to natural history, inspired him on themes, and was preparing a new work,
La nature
, at the time of his death in 1874.
[17]
She lived until 1899.
Upon his death from a heart attack at
Hyeres
on 9 February 1874, Michelet was interred there. At his widow's request, a Paris court granted permission for his body to be exhumed on 13 May 1876 in order for him to be buried in Paris.
On 16 May, his coffin arrived for reburial at
Le Pere Lachaise Cemetery
in Paris. Michelet's monument there, designed by architect
Jean-Louis Pascal
, was erected in 1893 through public subscription.
[18]
Bequeathment of literary rights
edit
Michelet accorded Athenais literary
rights
to his books and papers before he died, acknowledging the significant role she had in what he published during his later years.
[19]
After having won a court challenge to this bequeathment, Athenais retained the papers and publishing rights.
[19]
An author of memoirs, she later published several books about her husband and his family that were based on extracts and journals he had left her.
Athenais bequeathed that literary legacy to
Gabriel Monod
, a historian who founded the
Revue Historique
. A potentially
misogynistic
effort to discount the contributions of Athenais is noted by a historian,
Bonnie Smith
, who notes, "Michelet scholarship, like other historiographical debates, has taken great pains to establish the priority of the male over the female in writing history."
[20]
- Michelet, Jules.
The History of the French Revolution
(Charles Cocks, trans., 1847)
online
- Michelet, Jules.
History of the Roman Republic
(William Hazlitt, trans., 1847)
online
- Michelet, Jules (1844).
The History of France
. Trans. by W. K. Kelly (vol. 1?2 only).
- Michelet, Jules.
On History: Introduction to World History
(1831);
Opening Address at the Faculty of Letters
(1834);
Preface to History of France
(1869). Trans. Flora Kimmich, Lionel Gossman and Edward K. Kaplan. Cambridge, UK: Open Book Publishers, 2013.
- History of France
v 1 English translation
- History of France
v 2 English translation
- ^
Van der Veen, Wouter.
"From Michelet to Gauguin: Van Gogh's literary mind"
.
Van Gogh Museum Journal
. Retrieved
15 July
2023
.
- ^
De Bruijn, Jan (2004).
Groen van Prinsterer in Europese context
. Hilversum: Verloren. p.?12.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
k
l
m
n
o
p
This article?incorporates text from a publication now in the
public domain
:?
Saintsbury, George
(1911). "
Michelet, Jules
".
Encyclopædia Britannica
. Vol.?18 (11th?ed.). pp.?369?370.
- ^
Michelet, Jules.
History of France
, trans. G. H. Smith (New York: D. Appleton, 1847)
- ^
Wilson, Edmund (1940).
To the Finland Station: A study in the writing and acting of History
.
- ^
Murray, P. and Murray, L. (1963)
The Art of the Renaissance
. London:
Thames & Hudson
(World of Art), p. 9.
ISBN
978-0-500-20008-7
- ^
Brotton, Jerry
(2002).
The Renaissance Bazaar
. Oxford University Press. pp.?21?22.
- ^
Francois Furet,
Revolutionary France 1770?1880
(1992), p. 571
- ^
Gilman, Sander L. (1996).
Seeing the Insane
. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. p.?214.
ISBN
0-8032-7064-X
.
- ^
Jo Tollebeek,
"
'Renaissance' and 'fossilization': Michelet, Burckhardt, and Huizinga,"
Renaissance Studies
(2001) 15#3 pp 354?366.
- ^
Wallace K. Ferguson,
The Renaissance in historical thought: five centuries of interpretation
(1948)
- ^
Barthes, Roland. Michelet, University of California Press; First Edition 8 January 1992
- ^
Jules Michelet,
Introduction to Universal History
, quoted in Nirenberg, 2013, p.7
- ^
Stern, Fritz, ed. (1970). "HISTORY AS a NATIONAL EPIC: Michelet".
The Varieties of History
(2nd?ed.). London: Palgrave. p.?108.
doi
:
10.1007/978-1-349-15406-7_8
.
ISBN
978-1-349-15406-7
.
- ^
Ripley, George; Dana, Charles A., eds. (1879).
"Michelet, Jules"?
.
The American Cyclopædia
.
- ^
Kippur, Steven (1981)
Jules Michelet
(State U. of New York Press, Albany), pp. 222?3.
- ^
a
b
Smith, Bonnie. Historiography, Objectivity, and the Case of the Abusive Widow.
History and theory
31: 22.
JSTOR
2505413
- ^
Smith, Bonnie. Historiography, Objectivity, and the Case of the Abusive Widow.
History and theory
31: 15?32.
JSTOR
2505413
- Roland Barthes
.
Michelet
(1978);English translation by Richard Howard (1992).
- Burrows, Toby. "Michelet in English".
Bulletin
(Bibliographical Society of Australia and New Zealand) 16.1 (1992): 23+.
online
Archived
2 October 2016 at the
Wayback Machine
; reviews all the translations into English.
- Francois Furet; Mona Ozouf (1989).
A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution
. Harvard UP. pp.?981?90.
ISBN
9780674177284
.
- Lionel Gossman
. "Jules Michelet and Romantic Historiography" in
Scribner's European Writers
, eds. Jacques Barzun and George Stade (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1985), vol. 5, 571?606
- Lionel Gossman
. "Michelet and Natural History: The Alibi of Nature" in
Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society
, vol. 145 (2001), 283?333
- Haac, Oscar A.
Jules Michelet
(G.K. Hall, 1982).
- Johnson, Douglas.
Michelet and the French Revolution
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990).
- Kippur, Stephen A.
Jules Michelet: A Study of Mind and Sensibility
(State University of New York Press, 1981).
- Rigney, Ann.
The Rhetoric of Historical Representation: Three Narrative Histories of the French Revolution
(Cambridge University Press, 2002) covers Alphonse de Lamartine, Jules Michelet and Louis Blanc.
- Edmund Wilson
.
To The Finland Station
(1940) (Chapter 3)