Anglo-Saxon runes
or
Anglo-Frisian runes
are
runes
that were used by the
Anglo-Saxons
and Medieval
Frisians
(collectively called
Anglo-Frisians
) as an
alphabet
in their native
writing system
, recording both
Old English
and
Old Frisian
(
Old English
:
r?na
, ????, "rune"). Today, the characters are known collectively as the
futhorc
(??????,
fuþorc
) from the sound values of the first six runes. The futhorc was a development from the older
co-Germanic
24-character runic alphabet, known today as
Elder Futhark
, expanding to 28-characters in its older form and up to 34-characters in its younger form. In contemporary Scandinavia, the Older Futhark developed into a shorter 16-character alphabet, today simply called
Younger Futhark
.
Use of the Anglo-Frisian runes is likely to have started in the 5th century onward and they continued to see use into the
High Middle Ages
. They were later accompanied and eventually overtaken by the
Old English Latin alphabet
introduced to
Anglo-Saxon England
by missionaries. Futhorc runes were no longer in common use by the eleventh century, but MS Oxford St John's College 17 indicates that fairly accurate understanding of them persisted into at least the twelfth century.
There are competing theories about the origins of the Anglo-Saxon futhorc. One theory proposes that it was developed in
Frisia
and from there later spread to
Britain
. Another holds that runes were first introduced to Britain from the mainland where they were then modified and exported to Frisia. Both theories have their inherent weaknesses, and a definitive answer may come from further archaeological evidence.
The early futhorc was nearly identical to the Elder Futhark, except for the split of
?
a
into three variants
?
?c
,
?
æsc
and
?
?s
, resulting in 26 runes. This was done to account for the new phoneme produced by the
Ingvaeonic
split of allophones of long and short
a
. The earliest known instance of the
?
?s
rune may be from the 5th-century, on the
Undley bracteate
. The earliest known instances of the
?
?c
rune may be from the 6th century, appearing on objects such as the Schweindorf solidus. The double-barred
?
hægl
characteristic of continental inscriptions is first attested as late as 698, on
St Cuthbert's coffin
; before that, the single-barred variant was used.
In England, outside of the
Brittonic
West Country where evidence of
Latin
[2]
and even
Ogham
continued for several centuries, usage of the futhorc expanded.
[
citation needed
]
Runic writing in England became closely associated with the Latin scriptoria from the time of Anglo-Saxon Christianization in the 7th century. In some cases, texts would be written in the Latin alphabet, and
þorn
and
?ynn
came to be used as extensions of the Latin alphabet. By the time of the Norman Conquest of 1066 it was very rare, and it disappeared altogether a few centuries thereafter. From at least five centuries of use, fewer than 200 artifacts bearing futhorc inscriptions have survived.
Several famous English examples mix runes and Roman script, or
Old English
and Latin, on the same object, including the
Franks Casket
and
St Cuthbert's coffin
; in the latter, three of the names of the
Four Evangelists
are given in Latin written in runes, but "LUKAS" (
Saint Luke
) is in Roman script. The coffin is also an example of an object created at the heart of the Anglo-Saxon church that uses runes. A leading expert,
Raymond Ian Page
, rejects the assumption often made in non-scholarly literature that runes were especially associated in
post-conversion
Anglo-Saxon England with
Anglo-Saxon paganism
or magic.
[3]
The letter sequence and letter inventory of futhorc, along with the actual sounds indicated by those letters, could vary depending on location and time. That being so, an authentic and unified list of runes is not possible.
Image
|
Unicode
|
Name
|
Name meaning
|
Transliteration
|
IPA
|
|
?
|
feh (feoh)
|
wealth, cattle
|
f
|
/f/, [v] (word-medial allophone of /f/)
|
|
?
|
ur (?r)
|
aurochs
|
u
|
/u(:)/
|
|
?
|
ðorn (þorn)
|
thorn
|
th
|
/θ/
,
[ð]
(word-medial allophone of /θ/)
|
|
?
|
os (?s)
|
heathen god
(
mouth
in rune poem?
[4]
(p?68)
)
|
o
|
/o(:)/
[5]
|
|
?
|
rada (r?d)
|
riding
|
r
|
/r/
|
|
?
|
cen (c?n)
|
torch
|
c
|
/k/, /k?/,
/t?/
|
|
?
|
geofu (gyfu)
|
gift
|
g
|
/?/,
[?]
(word-medial allophone of /?/), /j/
|
|
?
|
wyn (wynn)
|
mirth
|
w
|
/w/
|
|
?
|
hægil (hægl)
|
hail
|
h
|
/h/,
[x]
,
[c]
|
|
?
|
næd (n?od)
|
plight
|
n
|
/n/
|
|
?
|
is (?s)
|
ice
|
i
|
/i(:)/
|
|
?
/
?
|
gær (g?ar)
|
year
|
j
|
/j/
|
|
?
|
ih (?w)
|
yew tree
|
i
|
/i(:)/
[x]
,
[c]
[5]
|
|
?
|
peord (peorð)
|
(unknown
[4]
(pp?70?71)
)
|
p
|
/p/
|
|
?
|
ilcs (eolh?)
|
(unknown, perhaps a derivative of
elk
[4]
(p?71)
)
|
x
|
(otiose as a sound
[5]
(p?41)
but still used to transliterate the Latin letter 'X' into runes)
|
|
?
/
?
|
sygil (sigel)
|
sun (
sail
in rune poem?)
|
s
|
/s/, [z] (word-medial allophone of /s/)
|
|
?
|
ti (T?w)
|
(unknown, originally
god
,
[4]
(p?72)
Planet Mars
in rune poem?
[6]
)
|
t
|
/t/
|
|
?
|
berc (beorc)
|
birch tree
|
b
|
/b/
|
|
?
|
eh (eh)
|
steed
|
e
|
/e(:)/
|
|
?
|
mon (mann)
|
man
|
m
|
/m/
|
|
?
|
lagu (lagu)
|
body of water (lake)
|
l
|
/l/
|
|
?
|
ing (ing)
|
Ing (
Ingui-Frea
?)
|
ŋ
|
/ŋg/,
/ŋ/
|
|
?
|
oedil (?ðel)
|
inherited land, native country
|
œ
|
/
ø
(:)/
[5]
|
|
?
|
dæg (dæg)
|
day
|
d
|
/d/
|
|
?
|
ac (?c)
|
oak tree
|
a
|
/?(:)/
[5]
|
|
?
|
æsc (æsc)
|
ash tree
|
æ
|
/æ(:)/
[5]
|
|
?
|
ear (?ar)
|
(unknown, perhaps
earth
[4]
(p?76)
)
|
ea
|
/æ(:)?/
[5]
|
|
?
|
yr (?r)
|
(unknown, perhaps
bow
[4]
(p?75)
)
|
y
|
/y(:)/
[5]
|
The sequence of the runes above is based on
Codex Vindobonensis 795
.
The first 24 of these runes directly continue the elder futhark letters, and do not deviate in sequence (though
??
rather than
??
is an attested sequence in both elder futhark and futhorc). The manuscripts
Codex Sangallensis 878
and
Cotton?MS
Domitian A IX
have
?
precede
?
.
The names of the runes above are based on Codex Vindobonensis?795, besides the names
ing
and
æsc
which come from The Byrhtferth's Manuscript and replace the seemingly corrupted names
lug
and
æs
found in Codex Vindobonensis?795.
Ti
is sometimes named
tir
or
tyr
in other manuscripts. The words in parentheses in the name column are standardized spellings.
Image
|
UCS
|
Name
|
Name meaning
|
Transliteration
|
IPA
|
|
?
|
calc
|
chalk? chalice? sandal?
|
k
|
/k/
|
|
?
|
gar
|
spear
|
?
|
/g/, [?] (word-medial allophone of /g/)
[5]
|
|
?
|
cweorð
|
(unknown)
|
q
|
/k/? (for writing
Latin
?)
|
|
?
|
stan
|
stone
|
N/A
|
/st/
|
|
N/A
|
(unknown)
|
(unknown)
|
?, ?
|
/?/
?
|
|
N/A
|
(unknown)
|
(unknown)
|
?
|
/e(:)o/? /i(:)o/?
|
|
?
|
?or
|
beaver?
[7]
eel?
|
N/A
|
/i(:)o/?
|
|
?
|
(unknown)
|
(unknown)
|
c?, k?
|
/k/
|
The runes in the second table, above, were not included in Codex Vindobonensis?795:
Calc
appears in manuscripts, and epigraphically on the
Ruthwell Cross
, the
Bramham Moor Ring
, the
Kingmoor Ring
, and elsewhere. Gar appears in manuscripts, and epigraphically on the Ruthwell Cross and probably on the
Bewcastle Cross
.
[8]
The unnamed
?
rune only appears on the Ruthwell Cross, where it seems to take
calc
's place as /k/ where that consonant is followed by a secondary fronted vowel.
Cweorð
and
stan
only appear in manuscripts. The unnamed ? rune only appears on the Baconsthorpe Grip. The unnamed ? rune only appears on the Sedgeford Handle. While the rune poem and Cotton?MS
Domitian A IX
present
?
as
ior
, and
?
as
ger
, epigraphically both are variants of
ger
(although
?
is only attested once outside of manuscripts (on the Brandon Pin).
R.I. Page
designated ior a
pseudo-rune
.
[4]
(pp?45?47)
There is little doubt that
calc
and
gar
are modified forms of
cen
and
gyfu
, and that they were invented to address the ambiguity which arose from /k/ and /g/ spawning palatalized offshoots.
[4]
(pp?41?42)
R.I. Page
designated
cweorð
and
stan
"pseudo-runes" because they appear pointless, and speculated that
cweorð
was invented merely to give futhorc an equivalent to 'Q'.
[4]
(pp?41?42)
The ? rune is likely a local innovation, possibly representing an unstressed vowel, and may derive its shape from
?
}.
[9]
[
full citation needed
]
The unnamed ? rune is found in a personal name (b?rnferþ), where it stands for a vowel or
diphthong
. Anglo-Saxon expert Gaby Waxenberger speculates that ? may not be a true rune, but rather a bindrune of
?
and
?
, or the result of a mistake.
[10]
[
full citation needed
]
Combinations and digraphs
edit
Various runic combinations are found in the futhorc corpus. For example, the sequence ?? appears on the Mortain Casket where ? could theoretically have been used.
Combination
|
IPA
|
Word
|
Meaning
|
Found on
|
??
|
/oi/?
|
]oin[.]
|
(unknown)
|
Lindisfarne Stone II
|
??
|
[gg]?, [d?]?
|
blagcmon
|
(personal name)
|
Maughold Stone I
|
??
|
~[d?]
|
eggbrect
|
(personal name)
|
(an armband from the
Galloway Hoard
)
|
??
|
/?/
|
gehwelc
|
each
|
Honington Clip
|
??
|
/ks/
|
wohs
|
to wax
|
Brandon Antler
|
??
|
/ŋg/
|
hring
|
ring
|
Wheatley Hill Silver-Gilt Finger-Ring
|
??
|
/ij/
|
modig
|
proud/bold/arrogant
|
Ruthwell Cross
|
???
|
~/ij/?
|
hælij?
|
holy?
|
Gandersheim Casket
|
??
|
/ks/
|
BennaREis
|
king Benna
|
(a coin of
Beonna of East Anglia
)
|
??
|
/sk/,
/?/
|
fisc
|
fish
|
Franks Casket
|
??
|
/eo/, /eːo/
|
eoh
|
(personal name)
|
Kirkheaton Stone
|
??
|
/ej/
|
legdun
|
laid
|
Ruthwell Cross
|
??
|
~/ej/, [e?]?
|
eateinne
|
(personal name)
|
Thornhill Stone II
|
??
|
/æ?/, /æː?/
|
eadbald
|
(personal name)
|
Santi Marcellino e Pietro al Laterano Graffiti
|
??
|
~/?u/
|
saule
|
soul
|
Thornhill Stone III
|
??
|
/?i/
|
aib
|
(personal name)
|
Oostum Comb
|
??
|
/?j/?, /?x/?
|
fajhild? faghild?
|
(personal name)
|
Santi Marcellino e Pietro ad Duas Lauros Graffiti
|
??
|
~/æu/
|
dæus
|
deus (Latin)
|
Whitby Comb
|
??
|
/æ?/, /æː?/
|
æadan
|
(personal name)
|
Mortain Casket
|
A rune in Old English could be called a
r?nstæf
(perhaps meaning something along the lines of "mystery letter" or "whisper letter"), or simply
r?n
.
Futhorc inscriptions hold diverse styles and contents.
Ochre
has been detected on at least one English
runestone
, implying its runes were once painted.
Bind runes
are common in futhorc (relative to its small corpus), and were seemingly used most often to ensure the runes would fit in a limited space.
[11]
Futhorc
logography
is attested to in a few manuscripts. This was done by having a rune stand for its name, or a similar sounding word. In the sole extant manuscript of the poem
Beowulf
, the ?ðel rune was used as a logogram for the word ?ðel (meaning "homeland", or "estate").
[12]
Both the Hackness Stone and
Codex Vindobonensis 795
attest to futhorc
Cipher runes
.
[13]
In one manuscript (Corpus Christi College, MS 041) a writer seems to have used futhorc runes like
Roman numerals
, writing ???
?
?????????, which likely means "12&30 more".
[14]
There is some evidence of futhorc rune magic. The possibly magical
alu
sequence seems to appear on an urn found at
Spong Hill
in
spiegelrunes
(runes whose shapes are mirrored). In a tale from
Bede's
Ecclesiastical History
(written in Latin), a man named Imma cannot be bound by his captors and is asked if he is using "litteras solutorias" (loosening letters) to break his binds. In one Old English translation of the passage, Imma is asked if he is using "drycraft" (magic, druidcraft) or "runestaves" to break his binds.
[15]
Furthermore, futhorc
rings
have been found with what appear to be enchanted inscriptions for the stanching of blood.
[16]
The Old English and Old Frisian Runic Inscriptions database project at the
Catholic University of Eichstatt-Ingolstadt
,
Germany
aims at collecting the genuine corpus of Old English inscriptions containing more than two runes in its paper edition, while the electronic edition aims at including both genuine and doubtful inscriptions down to single-rune inscriptions.
The corpus of the paper edition encompasses about one hundred objects (including stone slabs, stone crosses, bones, rings, brooches, weapons, urns, a writing tablet, tweezers, a sun-dial,
[
clarification needed
]
comb,
bracteates
, caskets, a font, dishes, and graffiti).
The database includes, in addition, 16 inscriptions containing a single rune, several runic coins, and 8 cases of dubious runic characters (runelike signs, possible Latin characters, weathered characters). Comprising fewer than 200 inscriptions, the corpus is slightly larger than that of Continental Elder Futhark (about 80 inscriptions, c.?400?700), but slightly smaller than that of the Scandinavian Elder Futhark (about 260 inscriptions, c.?200?800).
Runic finds in England cluster along the east coast with a few finds scattered further inland in Southern England. Frisian finds cluster in
West Frisia
. Looijenga (1997) lists 23 English (including two 7th-century Christian inscriptions) and 21 Frisian inscriptions predating the 9th century.
Currently known inscriptions in Anglo-Frisian runes include:
FRISIAN
|
Ferwerd combcase, 6th century;
me uræ
|
Amay comb, c.?600;
eda
|
Oostyn comb, 8th century;
aib ka[m]bu / deda habuku
(with a triple-barred
h
)
|
Toornwerd comb, 8th century;
kabu
|
Skanomodu
solidus
, 575?610;
skanomodu
|
Harlingen solidus, 575?625,
hada
(two
ac
runes, double-barred
h
)
|
Schweindorf solidus, 575?625,
wela[n]du
"Weyland" (or
þeladu
; running right to left)
|
Folkestone
tremissis
, c.?650;
æniwulufu
|
Midlum
sceat
, c.?750;
æpa
|
Rasquert swordhandle (whalebone handle of a symbolic sword), late 8th century;
ek [u]mædit oka
, "I, Oka, not made mad"
[17]
(compare
ek unwodz
from the Danish corpus)
|
Arum sword, a yew-wood miniature sword, late 8th century;
edæboda
|
Westeremden A, a yew weaving-slay;
adujislume[þ]jisuhidu
|
Westeremden B, a yew-stick
, 8th century;
oph?nmuji?adaamluþ / :wimœ?ahþu?? / iwio?u?du?ale
|
Britsum yew-stick;
þkniaberetdud / ]n:bsrsdnu
; the
k
has Younger Futhark shape and probably represents a vowel.
|
Hantum whalebone plate;
[.]:aha:k[
; the reverse side is inscribed with Roman
ABA
.
|
Bernsterburen whalebone staff, c.?800;
tuda æwudu kius þu tuda
|
Hamwic
horse knucklebone, dated to between 650 and 1025;
katæ
(categorised as Frisian on linguistic grounds, from
*kaut?n
"knucklebone")
|
Wijnaldum B gold pendant, c.?600;
hiwi
|
Kantens combcase, early 5th century;
li
|
Hoogebeintum comb, c.?700;
[...]nlu / ded
|
Wijnaldum A antler piece;
zwfuwizw[...]
|
ENGLISH
|
Ash Gilton (Kent) gilt silver sword pommel, 6th century;
[...]emsigimer[...]
[18]
|
Chessel Down I (Isle of Wight), 6th century;
[...]bwseeekkkaaa
|
Chessel Down II (Isle of Wight) silver plate (attached to the scabbard mouthpiece of a ring-sword), early 6th century;
æko:[.]ori
|
Boarley (Kent) copper disc-brooch, c.?600;
ærsil
|
Harford (Norfolk) brooch, c.?650;
luda:gibœtæsigilæ
"Luda repaired the brooch"
|
West Heslerton
(North Yorkshire) copper cruciform brooch, early 6th century;
neim
|
Loveden Hill (Lincolnshire) urn; 5th to 6th century; reading uncertain, maybe
siþæbæd þiuw hlaw
"the grave of Siþæbæd the maid"
|
Spong Hill
(Norfolk), three cremation urns, 5th century; decorated with identical runic stamps, reading
alu
(in
Spiegelrunen
).
|
Kent II coins (some 30 items), 7th century; reading
pada
|
Kent III, IV silver
sceattas
, c.?600; reading
æpa
and
epa
|
Suffolk gold shillings (three items), c.?660; stamped with
desaiona
|
Caistor-by-Norwich astragalus
, 5th century; possibly a Scandinavian import, in Elder Futhark transliteration reading
raihan
"roe"
|
Watchfield (Oxfordshire) copper fittings, 6th century; Elder Futhark reading
hariboki:wusa
(with
a
probably already fronted to
æ
)
|
Wakerley (Northamptonshire) copper brooch, 6th century;
buhui
|
Dover (Kent) brooch, c.?600;
þd bli / bkk
|
Upper Thames Valley gold coins (four items), 620s;
benu:tigoii
;
benu:+:tidi
|
Willoughby-on-the-Wolds
(Nottinghamshire) copper bowl, c.?600;
a
|
Cleatham (South Humbershire) copper bowl, c.?600;
[...]edih
|
Sandwich
/Richborough (Kent) stone, 650 or earlier;
[...]ahabu[...]i
, perhaps
*ræhæbul
"stag"
|
Whitby I (Yorkshire) jet spindle whorl;
ueu
|
Selsey (West Sussex) gold plates, 6th to 8th centuries;
brnrn
/
anmu
|
St. Cuthbert's coffin
(Durham), dated to 698
|
Whitby II (Yorkshire) bone comb, 7th century;
[dæ]us mæus godaluwalu dohelipæ cy[
i.e.
deus meus, god aluwaldo, helpæ Cy...
"my god, almighty god, help Cy..." (
Cynewulf
or a similar personal name; compare also
names of God in Old English poetry
.)
|
the
Franks casket
; 7th century
|
zoomorphic silver-gilt knife mount, discovered in the River Thames near Westminster Bridge (late 8th century)
[19]
[20]
|
the
Ruthwell Cross
; 8th century, the inscription may be partly a modern reconstruction
|
the Brandon antler piece,
wohs wildum deoræ an
"[this] grew on a wild animal"; 9th century.
[21]
|
Kingmoor Ring
|
the
Seax of Beagnoth
; 9th century (also known as the Thames scramasax); the only complete alphabet
|
Near Fakenham plaque
; 8th-11th century lead plaque interpreted as bearing a healing inscription
[22]
|
Related manuscript texts
edit
- ^
Himelfarb, Elizabeth J. "First Alphabet Found in Egypt", Archaeology 53, Issue 1 (January/February 2000): 21.
- ^
"Ancient Writing Discovered at Tintagel Castle"
.
Archived
from the original on 29 November 2020
. Retrieved
21 November
2020
.
- ^
Page, Raymond Ian (1989), "Roman and Runic on St Cuthbert's Coffin", in Bonner, Gerald; Rollason, David; Stancliffe, Clare (eds.),
St. Cuthbert, his Cult and his Community to AD 1200
, Woodbridge: Boydell & Brewer, pp.?257?63,
ISBN
978-0-85115-610-1
,
archived
from the original on 15 April 2021
, retrieved
29 October
2020
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
Page, Raymond Ian
(1999).
An Introduction to English Runes
(2nd?ed.). Woodbridge: Boydell.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
Barnes, Michael (2012).
Runes: A handbook
. Woodbridge: Boydell. pp.?38?41.
- ^
Osborn, Marijane
(2010). "Tiw as Mars in the Old English rune poem".
ANQ: A Quarterly Journal of Short Articles, Notes and Reviews
.
16
. Taylor & Francis: 3?13.
doi
:
10.1080/08957690309598179
.
- ^
Osborn, Marijane
; Longland, Stella (1980).
"A Celtic intruder in the Old English 'rune poem'
"
.
Neuphilologische Mitteilungen
.
81
(4). Modern Language Society: 385?387.
ISSN
0028-3754
.
JSTOR
43343355
.
Archived
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