This article is about the divine abode in various religious traditions. For other uses, see
Heaven (disambiguation)
.
Heaven
, or
the heavens
, is a common
religious cosmological
or
transcendent
supernatural
place where beings such as
deities
,
angels
,
souls
,
saints
, or
venerated ancestors
are said to originate, be
enthroned
, or reside. According to the beliefs of some religions, heavenly beings can descend to Earth or
incarnate
and earthly beings can ascend to Heaven in the
afterlife
or, in exceptional cases, enter Heaven
without dying
.
Heaven is often described as a "highest place", the
holiest
place, a
Paradise
, in contrast to
hell
or the
Underworld
or the "low places" and
universally
or conditionally accessible by earthly beings according to various standards of
divinity
,
goodness
,
piety
,
faith
, or other
virtues
or
right beliefs
or simply
divine will
. Some believe in the possibility of a heaven on Earth in a
world to come
.
Another belief is in an
axis mundi
or
world tree
which connects the heavens, the terrestrial world, and the
underworld
. In
Indian religions
, heaven is considered as
Svargaloka
,
[1]
and the soul is again subjected to
rebirth
in different living forms according to its
karma
. This cycle can be broken after a soul achieves
Moksha
or
Nirvana
. Any place of existence, either of humans, souls or deities, outside the tangible world (Heaven, Hell, or other) is referred to as the
otherworld
.
At least in the Abrahamic faiths of
Christianity
,
Islam
, and some schools of
Judaism
, as well as
Zoroastrianism
, heaven is the realm of
afterlife
where good actions in the previous life are rewarded for eternity (
hell
being the place where bad behavior is punished).
Etymology
edit
The modern English word
heaven
is derived from the earlier (
Middle English
)
heven
(attested 1159); this in turn was developed from the previous
Old English
form
heofon
. By about 1000,
heofon
was being used in reference to the
Christianized
"place where God dwells", but originally, it had signified "sky, firmament"
[2]
(e.g. in
Beowulf
, c. 725). The English term has cognates in the other
Germanic languages
:
Old Saxon
he?an
"sky, heaven" (hence also
Middle Low German
heven
"sky"),
Old Icelandic
himinn
,
Gothic
himins
; and those with a variant final
-l
:
Old Frisian
himel, himul
"sky, heaven", Old Saxon and
Old High German
himil
,
Old Saxon
and
Middle Low German
hemmel
,
Old Dutch
and
Dutch
hemel
, and modern
German
Himmel
. All of these have been derived from a
reconstructed
Proto-Germanic
form *
hemina-
.
[3]
or
*hem?
.
[4]
The further derivation of this form is uncertain. A connection to
Proto-Indo-European
*?em-
"cover, shroud", via a reconstructed
*k?emen-
or
*k??men-
"stone, heaven", has been proposed.
[5]
Others endorse the derivation from a Proto-Indo-European root
*h₂e?m?
"stone" and, possibly, "heavenly vault" at the origin of this word, which then would have as
cognates
ancient Greek
?κμων (akm?n "anvil, pestle;
meteorite
"),
Persian
????? (
aseman, asman
"stone, sling-stone; sky, heaven") and
Sanskrit
?????? (
a?man
"stone, rock, sling-stone;
thunderbolt
; the
firmament
").
[4]
In the latter case English
hammer
would be another cognate to the word.
Ancient Near East
edit
Mesopotamia
edit
The ancient Mesopotamians regarded the sky as a series of domes (usually three, but sometimes seven) covering the
flat Earth
.
Each dome was made of a different kind of precious stone.
The lowest dome of heaven was made of
jasper
and was the home of the
stars
.
The middle dome of heaven was made of
saggilmut
stone and was the abode of the
Igigi
.
The highest and outermost dome of heaven was made of
lulud?n?tu
stone and was personified as
An
, the god of the sky.
The
celestial bodies
were equated with specific deities as well.
The planet
Venus
was believed to be
Inanna
, the goddess of sex and war.
The
Sun
was her brother
Utu
, the god of justice, and the
Moon
was their father
Nanna
.
In ancient Near Eastern cultures in general and in Mesopotamia in particular, humans had little to no access to the divine realm.
Heaven and Earth were separated by their very nature;
humans could see and be affected by elements of the lower heaven, such as stars and storms,
but ordinary mortals could not go to Heaven because it was the abode of the gods alone.
In the
Epic of Gilgamesh
,
Gilgamesh
says to
Enkidu
, "Who can go up to heaven, my friend? Only the gods dwell with Shamash forever."
Instead, after a person died, his or her soul went to
Kur
(later known as
Irkalla
), a dark shadowy
underworld
, located deep below the surface of the earth.
All souls went to the same afterlife,
and a person's actions during life had no impact on how he would be treated in the world to come.
Nonetheless, funerary evidence indicates that some people believed that Inanna had the power to bestow special favors upon her devotees in the afterlife.
Despite the separation between heaven and earth, humans sought access to the gods through
oracles
and
omens
.
The gods were believed to live in Heaven,
but also in their temples, which were seen as the channels of communication between Earth and Heaven, which allowed mortal access to the gods.
The
Ekur
temple in
Nippur
was known as the "Dur-an-ki", the "mooring rope" of heaven and earth.
It was widely thought to have been built and established by
Enlil
himself.
Hurrians and Hittites
edit
The ancient
Hittites
believed that some deities lived in Heaven while others lived in remote places on Earth, such as mountains, where humans had little access.
In the Middle Hittite myths, Heaven is the abode of the gods. In the
Song of Kumarbi
,
Alalu
was king in Heaven for nine years before giving birth to his son,
Anu
. Anu was himself overthrown by his son,
Kumarbi
.
[22]
[23]
[24]
[25]
Canaanites
edit
Almost nothing is known of
Bronze Age
(pre-1200 BC) Canaanite views of heaven and the archaeological findings at
Ugarit
(destroyed c. 1200 BC) have not provided information. The first century Greek author
Philo of Byblos
may have preserved elements of
Iron Age
Phoenician
religion in his
Sanchuniathon
.
[26]
Zoroastrians
edit
Zoroaster, the Zoroastrian prophet who introduced the
Gathas
, spoke of the existence of Heaven and Hell.
[27]
[28]
Historically, the unique features of Zoroastrianism, such as its conception of heaven, hell, angels, monotheism, belief in free will, and the day of judgement, among other concepts, may have influenced other religious and philosophical systems, including the Abrahamic religions, Gnosticism, Northern Buddhism, and Greek philosophy.
[29]
[28]
Abrahamic and Abrahamic-inspired religions
edit
Hebrew Bible
edit
As in other ancient Near Eastern cultures, in the Hebrew Bible, the universe is commonly divided into two realms: heaven (
??mayim
) and earth (
’ere?
).
Sometimes a third realm is added: either "sea",
[30]
"water under the earth",
[31]
or sometimes a vague "land of the dead" that is never described in depth.
[32]
The structure of heaven itself is not fully described in the Hebrew Bible,
but the fact that the Hebrew word
??mayim
is plural has been interpreted by scholars as an indication that the ancient Israelites envisioned the heavens as having multiple layers, much like the ancient Mesopotamians.
This reading is also supported by the use of the phrase "heaven of heavens" in verses such as Deuteronomy 10:14,
[34]
1 Kings 8:27,
[35]
and 2 Chronicles 2:6.
[36]
In line with the typical view of most Near Eastern cultures, the Hebrew Bible depicts Heaven as a place that is inaccessible to humans.
Although some prophets are occasionally granted temporary visionary access to heaven, such as in 1 Kings 22:19?23,
[38]
Job 1:6?12
[39]
and 2:1?6,
[40]
and Isaiah 6,
[41]
they hear only God's deliberations concerning the Earth and learn nothing of what Heaven is like.
There is almost no mention in the Hebrew Bible of Heaven as a possible afterlife destination for human beings, who are instead described as "resting" in
Sheol
.
[42]
The only two possible exceptions to this are
Enoch
, who is described in Genesis 5:24
[44]
as having been "taken" by God, and the prophet
Elijah
, who is described in 2 Kings 2:11
[45]
as having ascended to Heaven in a chariot of fire.
According to Michael B. Hundley, the text in both of these instances is ambiguous regarding the significance of the actions being described
and in neither of these cases does the text explain what happened to the subject afterwards.
The
God of the Israelites
is described as ruling both Heaven and Earth.
[46]
Other passages, such as 1 Kings 8:27
[35]
state that even the vastness of Heaven cannot contain God's majesty.
A number of passages throughout the Hebrew Bible indicate that Heaven and Earth will one day come to an end.
[47]
This view is paralleled in other ancient Near Eastern cultures, which also regarded Heaven and Earth as vulnerable and subject to dissolution.
However, the Hebrew Bible differs from other ancient Near Eastern cultures in that it portrays the God of Israel as independent of creation and unthreatened by its potential destruction.
Because most of the Hebrew Bible concerns the God of Israel's relationship with his people, most of the events described in it take place on Earth, not in Heaven.
The
Deuteronomistic source
,
Deuteronomistic History
, and
Priestly source
all portray the
Temple in Jerusalem
as the sole channel of communication between Earth and Heaven.
Second Temple Judaism
edit
During the period of the
Second Temple
(
c.
515 BC ? 70 AD), the Hebrew people lived under the rule of first the Persian
Achaemenid Empire
, then the Greek kingdoms of the
Diadochi
, and finally the
Roman Empire
.
Their culture was profoundly influenced by those of the peoples who ruled them.
Consequently, their views on existence after death were profoundly shaped by the ideas of the Persians, Greeks, and Romans.
[52]
The idea of the
immortality of the soul
is derived from Greek philosophy
[52]
and the idea of the
resurrection of the dead
is thought to be derived from Persian cosmology,
[52]
although the later claim has been recently questioned.
[53]
By the early first century AD, these two seemingly incompatible ideas were often conflated by Hebrew thinkers.
[52]
The Hebrews also inherited from the Persians, Greeks, and Romans the idea that the human soul originates in the divine realm and seeks to return there.
The idea that a human soul belongs in Heaven and that Earth is merely a temporary abode in which the soul is tested to prove its worthiness became increasingly popular during the
Hellenistic period
(323?31 BC).
Gradually, some Hebrews began to adopt the idea of Heaven as the eternal home of the righteous dead.
Christianity
edit
Descriptions of Heaven in the
New Testament
are more fully developed than those in the Old Testament, but are still generally vague.
As in the Old Testament, in the New Testament God is described as the ruler of Heaven and Earth, but his power over the Earth is challenged by
Satan
.
The
Gospels of Mark
and
Luke
speak of the "
Kingdom of God
" (
Greek
:
βασιλε?α το? θεο?
;
basileia tou theou
), while the
Gospel of Matthew
more commonly uses the term "
Kingdom of heaven
" (
Greek
:
βασιλε?α τ?ν ο?ραν?ν
;
basileia t?n ouran?n
).
[55]
[57]
Both phrases are thought to have the same meaning,
but the author of the Gospel of Matthew changed the name "Kingdom of God" to "Kingdom of Heaven" in most instances because it was the more acceptable phrase in his own cultural and religious context in the late first century.
Modern scholars agree that the Kingdom of God was an essential part of the teachings of the
historical Jesus
.
[60]
In spite of this, none of the gospels record Jesus as having explained exactly what the phrase "Kingdom of God" means.
The most likely explanation for this apparent omission is that the Kingdom of God was a commonly understood concept that required no explanation.
Jews in
Judea
during the early first century believed that God reigns eternally in Heaven,
[60]
but many also believed that God would eventually establish his kingdom on earth as well.
[60]
This belief is referenced in the first petition of the
Lord's Prayer
, taught by Jesus to his disciples and recorded in Matthew
[64]
and Luke 11:2:
[65]
"Your kingdom come, your will be done, on earth as it is in heaven."
[66]
Because God's Kingdom was believed to be superior to any human kingdom, this meant that God would necessarily drive out the Romans, who ruled Judea, and establish his own direct rule over the Jewish people.
[55]
In the teachings of the historical Jesus, people are expected to prepare for the coming of the Kingdom of God by living moral lives.
[68]
Jesus's commands for his followers to adopt lifestyles of
moral perfectionism
are found in many passages throughout the Synoptic Gospels, particularly in the
Sermon on the Mount
in Matthew 5?7.
[69]
[70]
Jesus also taught that, in the Kingdom of Heaven, there would be a reversal of roles in which "the last will be first and the first will be last."
[71]
[72]
This teaching recurs throughout the recorded teachings of Jesus, including in the admonition to be like a child,
[73]
the
Parable of the Rich Man and Lazarus
in Luke 16,
[74]
the
Parable of the Workers in the Vineyard
in Matthew 20,
[75]
the
Parable of the Great Banquet
in Matthew 22,
[76]
and the
Parable of the Prodigal Son
in Luke 15.
[77]
[78]
Traditionally,
Christianity
has taught that Heaven is the location of the
throne of God
as well as the holy
angels
,
[79]
[80]
although this is in varying degrees considered
metaphorical
. In traditional Christianity, it is considered a state or condition of existence (rather than a particular place somewhere in the
cosmos
) of the supreme fulfillment of
theosis
in the
beatific vision
of the
Godhead
. In most
forms of Christianity
, Heaven is also understood as the abode for the redeemed dead in the
afterlife
, usually a temporary stage before the
resurrection of the dead
and the
saints
' return to
the New Earth
.
The
resurrected Jesus
is said to have
ascended to Heaven
where
he now sits
at the
Right Hand of God
and will return to Earth in the
Second Coming
. Various people have been said to have
entered Heaven while still alive
, including
Enoch
,
Elijah
and
Jesus
, after his resurrection. According to
Roman Catholic teaching
,
Mary, mother of Jesus
, is also said to have been
assumed into Heaven
and is titled the
Queen of Heaven
.
In the second century AD,
Irenaeus
of Lyons recorded a belief that, in accordance with John 14,
[81]
those who in the
afterlife
see the
Saviour
are in different mansions, some dwelling in the heavens, others in
paradise
and others in "
the city
".
[82]
While the word used in all these writings, in particular the New Testament Greek word
ο?ραν??
(
ouranos
), applies primarily to the
sky
, it is also used metaphorically of the dwelling place of God and the
blessed
.
[83]
[84]
Similarly, though the English word "heaven" keeps its original physical meaning when used, for instance, in allusions to the stars as "lights shining through from heaven", and in phrases such as
heavenly body
to mean an astronomical object, the heaven or happiness that Christianity looks forward to is, according to Pope John Paul II, "neither an abstraction nor a physical place in the clouds, but a living, personal relationship with the
Holy Trinity
. It is our meeting with the
Father
which takes place in the risen
Christ
through the communion of the
Holy Spirit
."
[79]
Rabbinical Judaism
edit
While the concept of Heaven (
malkuth hashamaim
????? ?????, the
Kingdom of Heaven
) is much discussed in
Christian
thought, the
Jewish concept of the afterlife
, sometimes known as
olam haba
, the World-to-come, is not discussed as often. The
Torah
has little to say on the subject of survival after death, but by the time of the rabbis two ideas had made inroads among the Jews: one, which is probably derived from Greek thought,
[85]
is that of the
immortal soul
which returns to its creator after death; the other, which is thought to be of Persian origin,
[85]
is that of
resurrection of the dead
.
Jewish writings
[
which?
]
refer to a "new earth" as the abode of mankind following the resurrection of the dead. Originally, the two ideas of
immortality
and resurrection were different but in rabbinic thought they are combined: the soul departs from the body at death but is returned to it at the
resurrection
. This idea is linked to another rabbinic teaching, that men's good and bad actions are rewarded and punished not in this life but after death, whether immediately or at the subsequent resurrection.
[85]
Around 1 CE, the
Pharisees
believed in an afterlife but the
Sadducees
did not.
[86]
The
Mishnah
has many sayings about the
World to Come
, for example, "Rabbi Yaakov said: This world is like a lobby before the World to Come; prepare yourself in the lobby so that you may enter the banquet hall."
[87]
Judaism holds that the
righteous of all nations
have a share in the World-to-come.
[88]
According to
Nicholas de Lange
,
Judaism
offers no clear teaching about the destiny which lies in wait for the individual after death and its attitude to life after death has been expressed as follows: "For the future is inscrutable, and the accepted sources of knowledge, whether experience, or reason, or revelation, offer no clear guidance about what is to come. The only certainty is that each man must die ? beyond that we can only guess."
[85]
Similar to Jewish traditions such as the
Talmud
, the
Qur'an
and
Hadith
frequently mention the existence of seven
sam?w?t
(??????), the plural of
sam??
(????), meaning 'heaven, sky, celestial sphere', and cognate with Hebrew
sham?yim
(????). Some of the verses in the Qur'an mentioning the
samaawat
[89]
are
41:12
,
65:12
and
71:15
.
Sidrat al-Muntaha
, a large enigmatic Lote tree, marks the end of the seventh heaven and the utmost extremity for all of God's creatures and heavenly knowledge.
[90]
One interpretation of "heavens" is that all the stars and galaxies (including the
Milky Way
) are part of the "first heaven", and "beyond that six still bigger worlds are there," which have yet to be discovered by scientists.
[91]
According to
Shi'ite
sources,
Ali
mentioned the names of the seven heavens as below:
[92]
- Rafi'
(????) the least heaven (???? ??????)
- Qaydum
(?????)
- Marum
(?????)
- Arfalun
(??????)
- Hay'oun
(?????)
- Arous
(????)
- Ajma'
(?????)
Still an afterlife destination of the righteous is conceived in Islam as
Jannah
(
Arabic
:
???
"Garden [of Eden]" translated as "paradise"). Regarding
Eden
or paradise the Quran says, "The description of the Paradise promised to the righteous is that under it rivers flow; eternal is its fruit as well as its shade. That is the ?ultimate? outcome for the righteous. But the outcome for the disbelievers is the Fire!"
[93]
Islam rejects the concept of
original sin
, and Muslims believe that all human beings are born pure. Children automatically go to paradise when they die, regardless of the religion of their parents.
Paradise is described primarily in physical terms as a place where every wish is immediately fulfilled when asked. Islamic texts describe immortal life in Jannah as happy, without
negative emotions
. Those who dwell in Jannah are said to wear costly apparel, partake in exquisite banquets, and recline on couches inlaid with gold or precious stones. Inhabitants will rejoice in the company of their parents, spouses, and children. In Islam if one's good deeds outweigh one's sins then one may gain entrance to paradise only through
God's mercy
. Conversely, if one's sins outweigh their good deeds they are sent to hell. The more good deeds one has performed the higher the level of Jannah one is directed to.
Quran
verses which describe paradise include: 13:15, 18:31, 38:49?54, 35:33?35 and 52:17.
[94]
The Quran refers to Jannah with different names:
Al-Firdaws
,
Jann?tu-′Adn
("Garden of Eden" or "Everlasting Gardens"),
Jannatu-n-Na'?m
("Garden of Delight"),
Jannatu-l-Ma'wa
("Garden of Refuge"),
D?ru-s-Sal?m
("Abode of Peace"),
D?ru-l-Muq?ma
("Abode of Permanent Stay"),
al-Muq?mu-l-Amin
("The Secure Station") and
Jann?tu-l-Khuld
("Garden of Immortality"). In the
Hadiths
, these are the different regions in paradise.
[95]
Ahmadiyya
edit
According to the
Ahmadiyya
view, much of the imagery presented in the Quran regarding Heaven, but also Hell, is metaphorical. They propound the verse which describes, according to them, how the life to come after death is different from the life on Earth. The
Quran
says: "From bringing in your place others like you, and from developing you into a form which at present you know not."
[96]
According to
Mirza Ghulam Ahmad
, the founder of the
Ahmadiyya
sect in Islam, the soul will give birth to another rarer entity and will resemble the life on earth in the sense that this entity will bear a similar relationship to the soul, as the soul bears relationship with the human existence on earth. On earth, if a person leads a righteous life and submits to the will of God, his or her tastes become attuned to enjoying spiritual pleasures as opposed to carnal desires. With this, an "embryonic soul" begins to take shape. Different tastes are said to be born in which a person given to carnal passions finds no enjoyment. For example, sacrifice of one's own rights over that of other's becomes enjoyable, or that forgiveness becomes second nature. In such a state a person finds contentment and Peace at heart and at this stage, according to Ahmadiyya beliefs, it can be said that a soul within the soul has begun to take shape.
[97]
Baha?i Faith
edit
The
Baha?i Faith
regards the conventional description of heaven (and hell) as a specific place as symbolic. The
Baha?i writings
describe heaven as a "spiritual condition" where closeness to God is defined as heaven; conversely
hell
is seen as a state of remoteness from God.
Baha'u'llah
, the founder of the Baha?i Faith, has stated that the nature of the life of the soul in the afterlife is beyond comprehension in the physical plane, but has stated that the soul will retain its consciousness and individuality and remember its physical life; the soul will be able to recognize other souls and communicate with them.
[98]
For Baha?is, entry into the next life has the potential to bring great joy.
[98]
Baha'u'llah likened death to the process of birth. He explains: "The world beyond is as different from this world as this world is different from that of the child while still in the
womb
of its mother."
[99]
The analogy to the womb in many ways summarizes the Baha?i view of earthly existence: just as the womb constitutes an important place for a person's initial physical development, the physical world provides for the development of the individual
soul
. Accordingly, Baha?is view life as a preparatory stage, where one can develop and perfect those qualities which will be needed in the next life.
[98]
The key to spiritual progress is to follow the path outlined by the current
Manifestation of God
, which Baha?is believe is currently Baha'u'llah. Baha'u'llah wrote, "Know thou, of a truth, that if the soul of man hath walked in the ways of God, it will, assuredly return and be gathered to the glory of the Beloved."
[100]
The Baha?i teachings state that there exists a hierarchy of souls in the
afterlife
, where the merits of each soul determines their place in the hierarchy, and that souls lower in the hierarchy cannot completely understand the station of those above. Each soul can continue to progress in the afterlife, but the soul's development is not entirely dependent on its own conscious efforts, the nature of which we are not aware, but also augmented by the grace of God, the
prayers
of others, and good deeds performed by others on Earth in the name of that person.
[98]
Mandaeism
edit
Mandaeans
believe in an afterlife or heaven called
Alma d-Nhura
(World of Light).
[101]
The
World of Light
is the primeval, transcendent world from which
Tibil
and the
World of Darkness
emerged. The Great Living God (
Hayyi Rabbi
) and his
uthras
(angels or guardians) dwell in the World of Light. The World of Light is also the source of
Piriawis
, the Great
Yardena
(or
Jordan River
) of Life.
[102]
Gnosticism
edit
The cosmological description of the universe in the
Gnostic
codex
On the Origin of the World
presents
seven heavens
created by the lesser god or
Demiurge
called Yaldabaoth, which are individually ruled over by one of his
Archons
. Above these realms is the eighth heaven, where the benevolent,
higher divinities
dwell. During the
end of days
, the seven heavens of the Archons will collapse on each other. The heaven of Yaldabaoth will split in two and cause the stars in his celestial sphere to fall.
[103]
Chinese religions
edit
In the native
Chinese
Confucian
traditions, heaven (
Tian
) is an important concept, where the ancestors reside and from which emperors drew their mandate to rule in their dynastic propaganda, for example.
Heaven is a key concept in Chinese mythology, philosophies, and religions, and is on one end of the spectrum a synonym of
Shangdi
("Supreme Deity") and on the other naturalistic end, a synonym for
nature
and the sky. The Chinese term for "heaven",
Tian
(天), derives from the name of the supreme deity of the
Zhou dynasty
. After their conquest of the
Shang dynasty
in 1122 BC, the Zhou people considered their supreme deity
Tian
to be identical with the
Shang
supreme deity
Shangdi
.
[104]
The Zhou people attributed Heaven with anthropomorphic attributes, evidenced in the etymology of the Chinese character for heaven or sky, which originally depicted a person with a large cranium. Heaven is said to see, hear and watch over all people. Heaven is affected by people's doings, and having personality, is happy and angry with them. Heaven blesses those who please it and sends calamities upon those who offend it.
[105]
Heaven was also believed to transcend all other spirits and gods, with
Confucius
asserting, "He who offends against Heaven has none to whom he can pray."
[105]
Other philosophers born around the time of Confucius such as
Mozi
took an even more theistic view of heaven, believing that heaven is the divine ruler, just as the
Son of Heaven
(the King of Zhou) is the earthly ruler. Mozi believed that spirits and minor gods exist, but their function is merely to carry out the will of heaven, watching for evil-doers and punishing them. Thus they function as angels of heaven and do not detract from its monotheistic government of the world. With such a high monotheism, it is not surprising that
Mohism
championed a concept called "universal love" (
jian'ai
, 兼愛), which taught that heaven loves all people equally and that each person should similarly love all human beings without distinguishing between his own relatives and those of others.
[106]
In
Mozi
's
Will of Heaven
(天志), he writes:
"I know Heaven loves men dearly not without reason. Heaven ordered the sun, the moon, and the stars to enlighten and guide them. Heaven ordained the four seasons, Spring, Autumn, Winter, and Summer, to regulate them. Heaven sent down snow, frost, rain, and dew to grow the five grains and flax and silk that so the people could use and enjoy them. Heaven established the hills and rivers, ravines and valleys, and arranged many things to minister to man's good or bring him evil. He appointed the dukes and lords to reward the virtuous and punish the wicked, and to gather metal and wood, birds and beasts, and to engage in cultivating the five grains and flax and silk to provide for the people's food and clothing. This has been so from antiquity to the present."
Original Chinese: 「且吾所以知天之愛民之厚者有矣,曰以磨?日月星辰,以昭道之;制?四時春秋冬夏,以紀綱之;雷降雪霜雨露,以長遂五穀麻絲,使民得而財利之;列?山川谿谷,播賦百事,以臨司民之善否;?王公侯伯,使之賞賢而罰暴;賊金木鳥獸,從事乎五穀麻絲,以?民衣食之財。自古及今,未嘗不有此也。」
Mozi,
Will of Heaven
, Chapter 27, Paragraph 6, ca. 5th Century BC
Mozi
criticized the Confucians of his own time for not following the teachings of Confucius. By the time of the later
Han dynasty
, however, under the influence of
Xunzi
, the Chinese concept of heaven and Confucianism itself had become mostly naturalistic, though some Confucians argued that Heaven was where ancestors reside. Worship of heaven in China continued with the erection of shrines, the last and greatest being the
Temple of Heaven
in Beijing, and the offering of prayers. The ruler of China in every Chinese dynasty would perform annual sacrificial rituals to heaven, usually by slaughtering two healthy bulls as a sacrifice.
Indian religions
edit
Buddhism
edit
In
Buddhism
there are several heavens, all of which are still part of
samsara
(illusionary reality). Those who accumulate good
karma
may be reborn
[107]
in one of them. However, their stay in heaven is not eternal?eventually they will use up their good karma and will undergo
rebirth
into another realm, as a human, animal or other being. Because heaven is temporary and part of
samsara
, Buddhists focus more on escaping the cycle of rebirth and reaching
enlightenment
(
nirvana
). Nirvana is not a heaven but a mental state.
According to
Buddhist cosmology
the universe is impermanent and beings transmigrate through several existential "planes" in which this human world is only one "realm" or "path".
[108]
These are traditionally envisioned as a vertical continuum with the heavens existing above the human realm, and the realms of the animals,
hungry ghosts
and hell beings existing beneath it. According to Jan Chozen Bays in her book,
Jizo: Guardian of Children, Travelers, and Other Voyagers
, the realm of the
asura
is a later refinement of the heavenly realm and was inserted between the human realm and the heavens. One important Buddhist heaven is the
Tr?yastri??a
, which resembles
Olympus
of Greek mythology.
In the
Mahayana
world view, there are also
pure lands
which lie outside this continuum and are created by the Buddhas upon attaining enlightenment. Rebirth in the pure land of Amitabha is seen as an assurance of Buddhahood, for once reborn there, beings do not fall back into cyclical existence unless they
choose to do so
to save other beings, the goal of Buddhism being the obtainment of enlightenment and freeing oneself and others from the birth-death cycle.
The
Tibetan
word
Bardo
means literally "intermediate state". In
Sanskrit
the concept has the name
antarabh?va
.
The lists below are ordered from highest to lowest of the heavenly worlds.
Theravada
edit
According to the A?guttara Nik?ya
edit
Brahm?loka
Here the denizens are Brahm?s, and the ruler is
Mah?brahm?
. After developing the four Brahmavih?ras, King Makh?deva rebirths here after death. The monk Tissa and Br?hmana J?nussoni were also reborn here.
The lifespan of a Brahm?s is not stated but is not eternal.
Parinirmita-va?avartin
(
Pali
:
Paranimmita-vasavatti
)
The heaven of devas have "power over (others') creations". These devas do not create pleasing forms that they desire for themselves, but their desires are fulfilled by the acts of other devas who seek their favor. The ruler of this world is called Va?avartin (P?li: Vasavatti), who has longer life, greater beauty, more power and happiness and more delightful sense-objects than the other devas of his world. This world is also the home of the devaputra (being of a divine race) called
M?ra
, who endeavors to keep all beings of the K?madh?tu in the grip of sensual pleasures. M?ra is also sometimes called Va?avartin, but in general these two dwellers in this world are kept distinct. The beings of this world are 3
l?
(1,400?m; 4,500 feet) tall and live for 9,216,000,000 years (Sarv?stiv?da tradition).
Nirm??arati
(Pali:
Nimm?narat?
)
The world of devas "delighting in their creations". The devas of this world are capable of making any appearance to please themselves. The lord of this world is called Sunirmita (P?li Sunimmita); his wife is the rebirth of
Vis?kh?
, formerly the chief
up?sik?
(female lay devotee) of the Buddha. The beings of this world are
2
+
1
?
2
l?
(1,140?m; 3,750 feet) tall and live for 2,304,000,000 years (Sarv?stiv?da tradition).
Tu?ita
(Pali:
Tusita
)
The world of the "joyful" devas, it is best known for being the world in which a
Bodhisattva
lives before being reborn in the world of humans. Until a few thousand years ago, the Bodhisattva of this world was ?vetaketu (P?li: Setaketu), who was reborn as Siddh?rtha, who would become the Buddha
??kyamuni
; since then the Bodhisattva has been N?tha (or N?thadeva) who will be reborn as Ajita and will become the Buddha
Maitreya
(P?li Metteyya). While this Bodhisattva is the foremost of the dwellers in
Tu?ita
, the ruler of this world is another deva called
Santu?ita
(P?li: Santusita). The beings of this world are 2
l?
(910?m; 3,000 feet) tall and live for 576,000,000 years (Sarv?stiv?da tradition). An?thapindika, a Kos?lan householder and benefactor to the Buddha's order was reborn here.
Y?ma
The denizens here have a lifespan of 144,000,000 years.
Tr?yastri??a
(Pali:
T?vatimsa
)
The ruler of this heaven is
Indra
or Shakra, and the realm is also called Trayatrimia. Each denizen addresses other denizens with the title "m?risa".
The governing hall of this heaven is called Sudhamma Hall. This heaven has a garden Nandanavana with damsels, as its most magnificent sight.
Ajita, the Licchavi army general, was reborn here. Gopika, the S?kyan girl, was reborn as a male god in this realm.
Any Buddhist reborn in this realm can outshine any of the previously dwelling denizens because of the extra merit acquired for following the Buddha's teachings. The denizens here have a lifespan of 36,000,000 years.
C?tummah?r?jika
The heaven "of the Four Great Kings", its rulers are the four Great Kings of the name,
Vir??haka ????????
,
Dh?tar???ra ??????????
,
Vir?p?k?a ?????????
, and their leader
Vai?rava?a ?????????
. The devas who guide the Sun and Moon are also considered part of this world, as are the retinues of the four kings, composed of
Kumbh???as ?????????
(dwarfs),
Gandharva ???????s
(fairies),
N?gas ???
(snakes) and
Yak?as ????
(goblins). The beings of this world are 230?m (750 feet) tall and live for 9,000,000 years (Sarv?stiv?da tradition) or 90,000 years (Vibhajyav?da tradition).
Mahayana
edit
According to the ??ra?gama S?tra
edit
The Form Realm: The First Dhyana, the Second Dhyana, the Third Dhyana and the Fourth Dhyana.
edit
- The Heaven of Pervasive Purity
- Those for whom the world, the body, and the mind are all perfectly pure have accomplished the virtue of purity, and a superior level emerges. They return to the bliss of still extinction, and they are among those in the Heaven of Pervasive Purity
- The Heaven of Limitless Purity
- Those in whom the emptiness of purity manifests are led to discover its boundlessness. Their bodies and minds experience light ease, and they accomplish the bliss of still extinction. They are among those in the Heaven of Limitless Purity.
- The Heaven of Lesser Purity
- The heavenly beings for whom the perfection of light has become sound and who further open out the sound to disclose its wonder discover a subtler level of practice. They penetrate to the bliss of still extinction and are among those in the Heaven of Lesser Purity.
- Those who flow to these levels will not be oppressed by worries or vexations. Although they have not developed proper samadhi, their minds are pure to the point that they have subdued their coarser outflows
- The Light-Sound Heaven
- Those who take in and hold the light to perfection accomplish the substance of the teaching. Creating and transforming the purity into endless responses and functions, they are among those in the Light-Sound Heaven.
- The Heaven of Limitless Light
- Those whose lights illumine each other in an endless dazzling blaze shine throughout the realms of the ten directions so that everything becomes like crystal. They are among those in the Heaven of Limitless Light.
- The Heaven of Lesser Light
- Those beyond the Brahma heavens gather in and govern the Brahma beings, for their Brahma conduct is perfect and fulfilled. Unmoving and with settled minds, they produce light in profound stillness, and they are among those in the Heaven of Lesser Light.
- Those who flow to these levels will not be oppressed by any suffering or affliction. Although they have not developed proper samadhi, their minds are pure to the point that they are not moved by outflows.
- The Great Brahma Heaven
- Those whose bodies and minds are wonderfully perfect, and whose awesome deportment is not in the least deficient, are pure in the prohibitive precepts and have a thorough understanding of them as well. At all times these people can govern the Brahma multitudes as great Brahma lords, and they are among those in the Great Brahma Heaven.
- The Heaven of the Ministers of Brahma
- Those whose hearts of desire have already been cast aside, the mind apart from desire manifests. They have a fond regard for the rules of discipline and delight in being in accord with them. These people can practice the Brahma virtue at all times, and they are among those in the Heaven of the Ministers of Brahma.
- The Heaven of the Multitudes of Brahma
- Those in the world who cultivate their minds but do not avail themselves of dhyana and so have no wisdom, can only control their bodies so as to not engage in sexual desire. Whether walking or sitting, or in their thoughts, they are totally devoid of it. Since they do not give rise to defiling love, they do not remain in the realm of desire. These people can, in response to their thoughts, assume the bodies of Brahma beings. They are among those in the Heaven of the Multitudes of Brahma.
The Six Desire Heavens
The Heaven of the Comfort from Others’ Transformations
- Those who have no kind of worldly thoughts while doing what worldly people do, who are lucid and beyond such activity while involved in it, are capable at the end of their lives of entirely transcending states where transformations may be present and may be lacking. They are among those born in the Heaven of the Comfort from Others’ Transformations.
The Heaven of Bliss by Transformation
- Those who are devoid of desire, but who will engage in it for the sake of their partner, even though the flavor of doing so is like the flavor of chewing wax, are born at the end of their lives in a place of transcending transformations. They are among those born in the Heaven of Bliss by Transformation.
The Tushita Heaven
- Those who practice constant silence, but who are not yet able to control their impulses when stimulated by contact, ascend at the end of their lives to a subtle and ethereal place; they will not be drawn into the lower realms. The destruction of the realms of humans and gods and the obliteration of the kalpas by the three disasters will not reach them. They are among those born in the Tushita Heaven.
The Suyama Heaven
- Those who become temporarily involved when they meet with desire but who forget about it when it is finished. While in the human realm, one is less active and more quiet, abiding in light and emptiness where the illumination of sun and moon does not reach. By the end of their lives, these beings have their own light. They are among those born in the Suyama Heaven.
The Trayastrimsha Heaven
- Those whose sexual love for their wives is slight, but who have not yet obtained the entire flavor of dwelling in purity, transcend the light of the sun and moon at the end of their lives, and reside at the summit of the human realm. They are among those born in the Trayastrimsha Heaven.
The Heaven of the Four Kings
- Those with no interest in deviant sexual activity and develop a purity such that one produces light. When their life ends, they draw near to the sun and moon and are among those born in the Heaven of the Four Kings.
Ou Yi Zhixu
[109]
explains that the Shurangama sutra only emphasizes avoidance of deviant sexual desire, but one would naturally need to abide by the 10 good conducts to be born in these heavens.
Tibetan Buddhism
edit
Tibetan literature classifies the heavenly worlds into 5 major types:
- Akanishtha
or
Ghanavyiiha
This is the most supreme heaven wherein beings that have achieved Nirvana live for eternity.
- Heaven of the Jinas
- Heavens of Formless Spirits
These are 4 in number.
- Brahmaloka
These are 16 in number, and are free from sensuality.
- Devaloka
These are 6 in number, and contain sensuality.
Hinduism
edit
Attaining heaven is not the final pursuit in Hinduism as heaven itself is ephemeral and related to physical body. Only being tied by the bhoot-tatvas, heaven cannot be perfect either and is just another name for pleasurable and mundane material life. According to
Hindu cosmology
, above the earthly plane, are other planes: (1) Bhuva
Loka
, (2)
Swarga
Loka, meaning Good Kingdom, is the general name for heaven in Hinduism, a heavenly
paradise
of pleasure, where most of the Hindu Devatas (
Deva
) reside along with the king of Devas, Indra, and beatified mortals. Some other planes are Mahar Loka, Jana Loka, Tapa Loka and Satya Loka. Since heavenly abodes are also tied to the cycle of birth and death, any dweller of heaven or hell will again be recycled to a different plane and in a different form per the karma and "maya" i.e. the illusion of Samsara. This cycle is broken only by self-realization by the Jivatma. This self-realization is
Moksha
(Turiya, Kaivalya).
The concept of moksha is unique to Hinduism. Moksha stands for liberation from the cycle of birth and death and final communion with Brahman. With moksha, a liberated soul attains the stature and oneness with
Brahman
or
Paramatma
. Different schools such as Vedanta, Mimansa, Sankhya, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, and Yoga offer subtle differences in the concept of Brahman, obvious Universe, its genesis and regular destruction, Jivatma, Nature (Prakriti) and also the right way in attaining perfect bliss or moksha.
In the
Vaishnava
traditions the highest heaven is
Vaikuntha
, which exists above the six heavenly lokas and outside of the mahat-
tattva
or mundane world. It's where eternally liberated souls who have attained moksha reside in eternal sublime beauty with
Lakshmi
and
Narayana
(a manifestation of
Vishnu
).
In the
Nasadiya Sukta
, the heavens/sky Vyoman is mentioned as a place from which an overseeing entity surveys what has been created. However, the Nasadiya Sukta questions the omniscience of this overseer.
The shape of the Universe as described in Jainism is shown at right. Unlike the current convention of using North direction as the top of map, this uses South as the top. The shape is similar to a part of human form standing upright.
The
Deva Loka
(heavens) are at the symbolic "chest", where all souls enjoying the positive karmic effects reside. The heavenly beings are referred to as
devas
(masculine form) and
devis
(feminine form). According to Jainism, there is not one heavenly abode, but several layers to reward appropriately the souls of varying degree of karmic merits. Similarly, beneath the "waist" are the
Narka Loka
(hell). Human, animal, insect, plant and microscopic life forms reside on the middle.
The pure souls (who reached Siddha status) reside at the very south end (top) of the Universe. They are referred to in Tamil literature as ????????????? (
Kural
43).
Sikh religion
edit
Sikhs
believe that heaven and hell are also both in this world where everyone reaps the fruit of karma.
[110]
They refer to good and evil stages of life respectively and can be lived now and here during our life on Earth.
[111]
Bhagat Kabir
in the
Guru Granth Sahib
rejects the otherworldly heaven and says that one can experience heaven on this Earth through the company of holy people.
He claims to know the Lord, who is beyond measure and beyond thought; By mere words, he plans to enter heaven. I do not know where heaven is. Everyone claims that he plans to go there. By mere talk, the mind is not appeased. The mind is only appeased, when egotism is conquered. As long as the mind is filled with the desire for heaven, He does not dwell at the Lord's Feet. Says Kabeer, unto whom should I tell this? The Company of the Holy is heaven.
??
Bhagat Kabir, Guru Granth Sahib 325
[112]
Mesoamerican religions
edit
The
Nahua people
such as the
Aztecs
,
Chichimecs
and the
Toltecs
believed that the heavens were constructed and separated into 13 levels. Each level had from one to many Lords living in and ruling these heavens. Most important of these heavens was Omeyocan (Place of Two). The
Thirteen Heavens
were ruled by
Ometeotl
, the dual Lord, creator of the Dual-Genesis who, as male, takes the name Ometecuhtli (Two Lord), and as female is named Omecihuatl (Two Lady).
Polynesia
edit
In the
creation myths
of
Polynesian mythology
are found various concepts of the heavens and the underworld. These differ from one island to another. What they share is the view of the universe as an egg or coconut that is divided between the world of humans (earth), the upper world of heavenly gods, and the underworld. Each of these is subdivided in a manner reminiscent of
Dante
's
Divine Comedy
, but the number of divisions and their names differs from one Polynesian culture to another.
[113]
In
M?ori mythology
, the heavens are divided into a number of realms. Different tribes number the heaven differently, with as few as two and as many as fourteen levels. One of the more common versions divides heaven thus:
- Kiko-rangi, presided over by the gods Toumau
- Waka-maru, the heaven of sunshine and rain
- Nga-roto, the heaven of lakes where the god
Maru
rules
- Hauora
, where the spirits of newborn children originate
- Nga-Tauira, home of the servant gods
- Nga-atua, which is ruled over by the hero
Tawhaki
- Autoia, where human souls are created
- Aukumea, where spirits live
- Wairua, where spirit gods live while waiting on those in
- Naherangi or Tuwarea, where the great gods live presided over by
Rehua
The M?ori believe these heavens are supported by pillars. Other Polynesian peoples see them being supported by gods (as in
Hawaii
). In one
Tahitian
legend, heaven is supported by an
octopus
.
Paumotu, Tuamotus
edit
The Polynesian conception of the universe and its division is nicely illustrated by a famous drawing made by a
Tuomotuan
chief in 1869. Here, the nine heavens are further divided into left and right, and each stage is associated with a stage in the evolution of the earth that is portrayed below. The lowest division represents a period when the heavens hung low over the earth, which was inhabited by animals that were not known to the islanders. In the third division is shown the first murder, the first burials, and the first canoes, built by
Rata
. In the fourth division, the first coconut tree and other significant plants are born.
[114]
Theosophy
edit
It is believed in
Theosophy
, founded mainly by
Helena Blavatsky
, that each religion (including Theosophy) has its own individual heaven in various regions of the upper
astral plane
that fits the description of that heaven that is given in each religion, to which a
soul
that has been
good
in their previous life on Earth will go. The area of the upper astral plane of Earth in the upper atmosphere where the various heavens are located is called
Summerland
(Theosophists believe
hell
is located in the lower astral plane of Earth which extends downward from the surface of the earth to its
center
). However, Theosophists believe that the soul is recalled back to Earth after an average of about 1400 years by the
Lords of Karma
to incarnate again. The final heaven that souls go to billions of years in the future after they finish their
cycle of incarnations
is called
Devachan
.
[115]
Criticism of the belief in heaven
edit
Anarchist
Emma Goldman
expressed this view when she wrote, "Consciously or unconsciously, most theists see in gods and devils, heaven and hell, reward and punishment, a whip to lash the people into obedience, meekness and contentment."
[116]
Some have argued that a belief in a reward after death is poor motivation for moral behavior while alive.
[117]
[118]
Sam Harris
wrote, "It is rather more noble to help people purely out of concern for their suffering than it is to help them because you think the Creator of the Universe wants you to do it, or will reward you for doing it, or will punish you for not doing it. The problem with this linkage between religion and morality is that it gives people bad reasons to help other human beings when good reasons are available."
[119]
Neuroscience
edit
Many
neuroscientists
and
neurophilosophers
, such as
Daniel Dennett
, believe that consciousness is dependent upon the functioning of the brain and death is a
cessation of consciousness
, which would rule out heaven. Scientific research has discovered that some areas of the brain, like the
reticular activating system
or the
thalamus
, appear to be
necessary
for consciousness, because
dysfunction of or damage to these structures
causes a loss of consciousness.
[120]
In
Inside the Neolithic Mind
(2005), Lewis-Williams and Pearce argue that many cultures around the world and through history neurally perceive a tiered structure of heaven, along with similarly structured
circles of hell
. The reports match so similarly across time and space that Lewis-Williams and Pearce argue for a neuroscientific explanation, accepting the percepts as real neural activations and subjective percepts during particular
altered states of consciousness
.
Many people who come close to death and have
near-death experiences
report meeting relatives or entering "the Light" in an otherworldly dimension, which shares similarities with the religious concept of heaven. Even though there are also reports of distressing experiences and negative
life-reviews
, which share some similarities with the concept of hell, the positive experience of meeting or entering "the Light" is reported as an immensely intense feeling of a state of love, peace and joy beyond human comprehension. Together with this intensely positive-feeling state, people who have near-death experiences also report that consciousness or a heightened state of awareness seems as if it is at the heart of experiencing a taste of "heaven".
[121]
Representations in arts
edit
See also
edit
References
edit
Citations
edit
- ^
"Life After Death Revealed ? What Really Happens in the Afterlife"
.
SSRF English
. Retrieved
2018-03-22
.
- ^
The Anglo-Saxons knew the concept of Paradise, which they expressed with words such as
neorxnawang
.
- ^
Barnhart (1995), p. 357.
- ^
a
b
Guus Kroonen:
Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Germanic
(=
Leiden Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Series
, vol. 11). Brill, Leiden and Boston 2009, s. v. "Hemina- ~ *Hemna-". First published online: October 2010.
- ^
Gerhard Kobler,
Altenglisches Worterbuch.
Fourth edition, online 2014
(in German), s. v. "heofon".
- ^
Harry A. Hoffner, Gary M. Beckman ? 1990
- ^
Sabatino Moscati Face of the Ancient Orient 2001 Page 174 "The first, called 'Kingship in Heaven', tells how this kingship passes from Alalu to Anu, ... was king in heaven, Alalu was seated on the throne and the mighty Anu, first among the gods,"
- ^
Moscatti, Sabatino (1968), "The World of the Phoenicians" (Phoenix Giant)
- ^
Moscati, Sabatino (2001).
The Phoenicians
. I.B. Tauris.
ISBN
9781850435334
.
- ^
Attridge, Harold. W., and R. A. Oden, Jr. (1981),
Philo of Byblos: The Phoenician History: Introduction, Critical Text, Translation, Notes
, CBQMS
9
(Washington: D. C.: The Catholic Biblical Association of America).
- ^
Nigosian, Solomon Alexander (1993), "Zoroastrian Faith: Tradition and Modern Research". McGill-Queen's Press.
- ^
a
b
Farhang, Merh (2003) "The Zoroastrian Tradition: An Introduction to the Ancient Wisdom of Zarathushtras". Mazda Publishers.
- ^
Kriwackzek, Paul (2002), "In Search of Zarathustra". Vintage Books.
- ^
Bible
,
Exodus 20:11
,
Genesis 1:10
.
- ^
Bible
,
Exodus 20:4
,
Deuteronomy 5:8
.
- ^
Bible
,
Job 26:5
,
Psalm 139:8
,
Amos 9:2
.
- ^
Bible
,
Deuteronomy 10:14
.
- ^
a
b
Bible
,
1 Kings 8:27
.
- ^
Bible
,
2 Chronicles 2:6
and
6:18
.
- ^
Bible
,
1 Kings 22:19?23
.
- ^
Bible
,
Job 1:6?12
.
- ^
Bible
,
2:1?6
.
- ^
Bible
,
Isaiah 6
.
- ^
Bible
,
Genesis 25:7?9
,
Deuteronomy 34:6
,
1 Kings 2:10
.
- ^
Bible
,
Genesis 5:24
.
- ^
Bible
,
2 Kings 2:11
.
- ^
Bible
,
Genesis 14:19
,
22
,
24:3
,
Psalm 146:6
.
- ^
Bible
,
Psalm 102:26?27
,
Isaiah 13:5
,
14:26
,
24:18
,
51:6
,
Jeremiah 4:23?28
, and
Zephaniah 1:2?3
and
18
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
Sanders 1993
, p.?170.
- ^
Ehrman, Bart D. (2020).
Heaven and Hell: A History of the Afterlife
. Simon and Schuster. pp.?104?105.
ISBN
978-1-5011-3675-7
.
More recently scholars have questioned a Persian derivation for the Jewish doctrine because of certain problems of dating. Some experts have undercut the entire thesis by pointing out that we actually do not have any Zoroastrian texts that support the idea of resurrection prior to its appearance in early Jewish writings. It is not clear who influenced whom. Even more significant, the timing does not make sense: Judah emerged from Persian rule in the fourth century BCE, when Alexander the Great (356?323 BCE) swept through the eastern Mediterranean and defeated the Persian Empire. But the idea of bodily resurrection does not appear in Jewish texts for well over a century after that.
- ^
a
b
Sanders 1993
, p.?169.
- ^
R. T. France.
The Gospel of Matthew
(21 Aug 2007),
ISBN
080282501X
. pp. 101?103.
- ^
a
b
c
Sanders 1993
, p.?169?171.
- ^
Bible
,
Matthew 6:10
.
- ^
Bible
,
Luke 11:2
.
- ^
Sanders 1993
, p.?172.
- ^
Sanders 1993
, pp.?170, 198?204.
- ^
Bible
,
Matthew 5?7
.
- ^
Sanders 1993
, pp.?198?204.
- ^
Bible
,
Mark 10:31
,
Matthew 19:30
,
Matthew 20:16
, and
Luke 13:30
.
- ^
Sanders 1993
, p.?196.
- ^
Bible
,
Mark 10:13?16
,
Matthew 19:30
, and
Luke 18:15?17
.
- ^
Bible,
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General and cited references
edit
- Barret, C. E. (2007). "Was dust their food and clay their bread?: Grave goods, the Mesopotamian afterlife, and the liminal role of Inana/I?tar".
Journal of Ancient Near Eastern Religions
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7
(1): 7?65.
doi
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10.1163/156921207781375123
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ISSN
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.
- Challoner, Richard
(1801).
"Day 17: On Heaven"?
.
Think Well On't or, Reflections on the great truths of the Christian religion for every day of the month
. T. Haydock.
- Cochem, Martin of
(1899).
"On Heaven"?
.
The four last things: death, judgment, hell, heaven
. Benziger Brothers.
- Black, Jeremy; Green, Anthony (1992).
Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia: An Illustrated Dictionary
. London, England: The British Museum Press.
ISBN
978-0-7141-1705-8
.
- Casey, Maurice
(2010).
Jesus of Nazareth: An Independent Historian's Account of His Life and Teaching
. New York City, New York and London, England: T & T Clark.
ISBN
978-0-567-64517-3
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- Choksi, M. (2014).
"Ancient Mesopotamian Beliefs in the Afterlife"
.
World History Encyclopedia
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- Hundley, Michael B. (2015). "Heaven and Earth". In Balentine, Samuel E. (ed.).
The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Bible and Theology
. Vol.?1: ABR?JUS. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. pp.?451?457.
ISBN
978-0-19-023994-7
.
- Lambert, W. G. (2016). George, A. R.; Oshima, T. M. (eds.).
Ancient Mesopotamian Religion and Mythology: Selected Essays
. Orientalische Religionen in der Antike. Vol.?15. Tuebingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck. p.?118.
ISBN
978-3-16-153674-8
.
- Lange, Armin; Tov, Emanuel; Weigold, Matthias (2011).
The Dead Sea Scrolls in Context: Integrating the Dead Sea Scrolls in the Study of Ancient Texts, Languages, and Cultures
. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
ISBN
978-90-04-18903-4
.
- Liguori, Alphonus
(1868).
"Chapter XXIX. Of Heaven"?
.
Preparation For Death
. Rivingtons.
- Liguori, Alphonus
(1882).
"Sermon XVI: On Heaven."?
.
Sermons for all the Sundays in the year
. Dublin, Ireland.
- McGrath, Alister E.
(2003).
A Brief History of Heaven
. Malden, Massachusetts, Oxford, England, Victoria, Australia, and Berlin, Germany: Blackwell Publishing.
ISBN
978-0-631-23354-1
.
- Nemet-Nejat, Karen Rhea
(1998).
Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia
. Greenwood.
ISBN
978-0313294976
.
- Russell, Jeffrey Burton
(1997).
A History of Heaven: The Singing Silence
. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
ISBN
978-0-691-00684-0
.
- Sanders, E. P.
(1993).
The Historical Figure of Jesus
. London, England; New York, New York; Ringwood, Australia; Toronto, Ontario; and Auckland, New Zealand: Penguin Books.
ISBN
978-0-14-014499-4
.
- Stephens, Kathryn (2013).
"An/Anu (god): Mesopotamian sky-god, one of the supreme deities; known as An in Sumerian and Anu in Akkadian"
. Ancient Mesopotamian Gods and Goddesses. University of Pennsylvania Museum.
- Wright, J. Edward (2000).
The Early History of Heaven
. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
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.
External links
edit
Look up
heaven
in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to
Heaven
.
Wikiquote has quotations related to
Heaven
.
- Heaven
on
In Our Time
at the
BBC
, UK
- Catholic Encyclopedia
: Heaven
- Jewish Encyclopedia
: Heaven
- Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
entry on heaven and hell
- Heaven: A fool's paradise
,
The Independent
, April 21, 2010
- Maps of heaven at the "Hell and heaven" subject, the Persuasive Cartography, The PJ Mode Collection
,
Cornell University Library
, New York
- Collection: Heaven, Hell, and Afterlives
from the
University of Michigan Museum of Art
, Ann Arbor, Michigan