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[1]
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?????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ??? ???? ?????? ??? ??????. ?? ??? ??? ?????? ??? ?? ???? ????? ??? ????? ???? ?????? ??????? ?????? ????. ??????? ?? ????? ??????? ??? ??? ?????? ??????? ?????? ????? ?? ???? ???? ?????? ???? ?????? ??? ??????? ???????? ???????? ???? ???????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ??????. ??? ?????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ?????????? ??? ??? ??????? ???????? ??? ??? ??? ??????? ?????????? ?????? ????????.
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??? 1200 ???????? ?? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?? ???????? ?? ?????? ?????? ????? ????? ?? ?????.
[2]
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?? ????? ?? ??? ????? ???????? ??? ???????? ??? ????? ???????? ??????? ??? ??????? ???????? ??? ???? ?????? ????????? ????????? ????????? ????? ??????? ?????? ?? ???? ??? ????? ??????????? ???????? ???????? ?? ≪??????≫ ?? ≪???????≫ ?????? ???????. ????? ?? ???? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ????.
?????? ??????? ?? ??? ???????? ???? ????
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(koinon). ???? ?? ????? ?????? ??? ??????? ??????
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? ??????? ?? ???? ????????????. ?????? ???????? ????????? ???????? ??????? ??
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(ars). ???? ??? ????? ?? ???????? ??????? ??
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) ???????? ??????? ???????? ?
Gilde
(???? ???
Gilden
) ??????? ??????. ???? ???? ?????
Metiers
?? ????? ?????
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???? ????? ???????? ??????? ??? ??? ????? ???? ??????. ??? ??????? ?????
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(hanghui) ??????? ?????? ?????
???? ???
(206 ??? ??????? - 220 ??? ???????)? ?????? ???? ??????? ??
???? ???
(589 - 618 ?). ?????? ???? ????? ??
?????
(?? 300 ??? 600 ?)? ???? ?????? ????????? ???? ???? ??? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???? ????? (shreni).
???? (senf)
(??
sinf
) ?? ????? ?????? ????? ????? ???? ???????? ????? ?? ??????? ??????? ???????? ??? ???
??????
(futuwwah) ??
???????
(futuvvet). ????? ?? 900 ?? ?????? ???? ?? ????? ????? ???? ???. ??? ??????? ???????? ?? ???????? ????? ????? ???????? ?????
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(egbe) ?
??????
(efako). ??? ??? ??????? ?? ?????????? ???? ?? ?????? ?????? ????????? ?? ??? ?????? ????? ??? ??????? ?????? ????? ???????? ???????? ??? ???? ???????? ????????? ?????? ??????? ??????????? ????????? ??
????????
(egungun) ??????? ?? ????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ??? ??????? ??? ???? ≪????????≫.
[3]
???? ??????? ?????? ???? ?????? ?????? ??
?????? ???????
- ??
???????
. ????? ?????? ??? ??????? ?? ?????? ?? ????? ????????? ??????? ??? ???? ????? ????? ???????. ??????? ?????? ?? ???????? ?? ??????? ????????. ?????? ??? ??????? ?????? ?? ??? ???????? ?? ???? ?? ????? ?????? ???????.
???? ?????
[
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]
???????
[
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]
???????
[
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]
- Braudel, Fernand:
The Wheels of Commerce
1982, vol. II of
Civilization and Capitalism
- Epstein, S. R. and Maarten Prak, eds.
Guilds, Innovation, and the European Economy, 1400?1800
(2008) 360pp essays by scholars covering German and Italian territories, the Netherlands, France, and England; plus guilds in cloth spinning, painting, glass blowing, goldsmithing, pewterware, book-selling, and clock making.
- Grafe, Regina, and Oscar Gelderblom. "The Rise and Fall of the Merchant Guilds: Re-thinking the Comparative Study of Commercial Institutions in Premodern Europe,"
Journal of Interdisciplinary History
, Spring 2010, Vol. 40 Issue 4, pp 477?511. Comparative study of the origins and development of merchant guilds in Europe, esp. their emergence during the late Middle Ages and their decline in the Early Modern era
- Ogilvie, Sheilagh.
Institutions and European Trade: Merchant Guilds, 1000-1800
Cambridge University Press, 2011) 493 pp.
ISBN 978-0-521-74792-9
online review
- Prak, Maarten.
Craft Guilds in the Early Modern Low Countries: Work, Power and Representation
(2006).
ISBN 978-0-7546-5339-4
excerpt and text search
- Rouche, Michel, "Private life conquers state and society," in
A History of Private Life
vol I, Paul Veyne, editor, Harvard University Press 1987
ISBN 0-674-39974-9
- Weyrauch, Thomas.
Craftsmen and their Associations in Asia, Africa and Europe
(Wettenberg/Germany, VVB Laufersweiler; 1999)
ISBN 3-89687-537-X
?????? ????
[
???
]
- Gordon Emery,
Curious Chester
(1999)
ISBN 1-872265-94-4
- Liza Picard,
Elizabeth's London
(2003)
ISBN 0-297-60729-4
- Lujo Brentano. On the History and Development of Gilds and the Origin of Trade-Unions Burt Frankin: Research & Source Works Series. New York: Burt Franklin, 1969.
- Steven Epstein,
Wage Labor & Guilds In Medieval Europe
(1991)
ISBN 0-8078-4498-5
- Mancur Olson,
The rise and decline of nations: economic growth, staglaction, and social rigidities
(New Haven & London 1982).
- St. Eloy's Hospice, the last Guild
????
inUtrecht,
??????
- The Spacing Guild from the Dune series, created by Frank Herbert.
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]
