????? ???????

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????? ???????
??? ?????? ??????? ??? ????? ????? ????? ????.
??????   ???????? ???????

  ??????? ???????

????
??????? 1942 - 1946
???????? 15 ????? 1947
??? ?? ???? ?????? ?????? ???????? ???????
????? ??????? ??? ???? ? ?????? ? ???????? ???????
?????? ??????? 13 ????? 1942
??????????
???? ??????
??????
????? ????? - ?????   طالع توثيق القالب

????? ??????? ( ??????????? : Manhattan Project )? ?? ????? ??? ?????? ??? ????? ???? ?? ????? ????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ???? ???. ???? ???????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ????? . ???? ??????? ????? ????? ?? ???? ?????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ??? ??????? ?? ??? 1942 ??? ??? 1946. ??? ??????? ??????? ????????? ??????? ?? ?????? ??????? ????? ????????? ???? ????? ??? ?????? . ?????? ?????? ??????? ????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ?? ??? ??? ??????? ?????? ???? ??? ???? ??????? ????? ?? ????? ?????? ??????? ???? ??? ????? ?????? ?????? ???????. ???? ????? ?? ??????? ?????? ???????? ????? ????????? ?????? ??? ????? ???????? . ?? ??? 1939? ??? ??????? ????? ???????? ????? ??? ????? ???? ?? ??? ??????? ??? ??? ??????? ??? ??????? ????? (?? ????? 23 ????? ????? ??????? ?? ??? 2018). ??? ???? ?? ????? ?? ????? ?? ??????? ????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?????????? ? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ????????. ????? ????? ???????? ?? ???? ?? ?????? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ?????.

??????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ?? ????? ?????: ????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ??? ???????? ??????? ?????? ???????. ???? ?? ????? ????? ????? ?????? ??? ???? ?? ???????????-239 ? ??? ????? ???? ????? ??? ????? ???? ????? ?????? ?????? ??????????-235 ? ??? ???? ????? ?? ?????????? ????? ??????? ?? ??????? ????? ???? ?? ???? ?? ?????. ???? ????? ??? ??????????-238 ? ?????? ???????? ????????? ?????? ?????? ?? ??? ?????? ???????. ???????? ???? ????? ?????? ?????????? : ??????????????? ???????? ?????????. ????? ???? ??? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ???????? ?? ??? ???? ?????? ?????? .

???????? ?? ????? ??? ???????????? ????? ??????? ?????? ??????????? ? ???? ??????? ?? ????? ?????????? ?? ??? 1940. [1] ?? ??? 1942? ???? ???? ???? ??? ????? ???? ??????? ?? ??????? ?????? ???? -1 ? ?? ????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ? ???? ?? ????? ????? ?????? X-10 ?? ??? ???? ??? ???????? ???????? ??????? ?? ???? ??????? ?????? ?????? ? ????? ????? ?????????? ??????? ??? ?????????. ???? ????? ??????????? ?? ?????????? ????????? ???????? ????? ???????? ??????. ?????? ???? ????? ?????? ? ??? ≪????? ?? ????? ????????? ???????? ???????????≫? ?? ???? ??????? ??????? ??? ??? ????? ??? ?????? ??????? ????????.

????? ??????? ????? ???? ??????? ????????? ?? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???????? . ??? ????? ????? ??????? ?? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ?? ??? ???????? ?? ???? ????? ??? ????? ????? ? ????? ????? ?????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ???????. ??? ??????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ??? ???????? ??????? ???????? ?? ?????? ????????.

?????? ??? ????? ????? ????? ???? ????? ?????? ????????? ?? ??? ???????? ??????? ?? ????? ?????? ? ??? ??? ?? ????? ??? ???????? ???????? ?????????? ?? ?????? ??? ?? ????? ??? 1945. ????? ????? ????? ???????? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ??? ???????? ????????? ? ??? ???????. ?? ??????? ???? ??? ????? ??????? ???? ????? ??????? ????? ??? ??????? ?? ????? ?????? ??? ????? ????? ????? ? ???? ????? ?????? ???? ????? ???? ????????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?? ???? ??? ?????? ? ???? ??? ????? ??????? ??????? . ?? ??????? ?????? ??? ????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?????????? ??? ?? ??????? ???? ?????? ?????? ????????? ?? ????? ??? 1947.

??????? ??????? ?????? [ ??? ]

???? ?????: ?????? ?????? ?????? ???????

??? ?????? ??????????? ?????????? ???? ??? ?????? ???????? ???????? ?????? ?? ??? 1938? ?????? ??? ?????? ????? ???? ?????? ???? ???????? ????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ??????. ???? ???? ????? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ????? ??? ??????? ???????? ?? ??????? ??????? ?????? ?? ??????? ??????? . [2] ?? ????? ??? 1939? ??? ????? ???????? ??? ?????? ?????? ????? ????????? ?? ????? ????? ????????-?????? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ????? ≪????? ????? ????? ?? ??? ????≫. ??? ??????? ???????? ??????? ??? ????? ????? ?????? ??????? ?? ??? ?????????? ?????? ??? ?????? ????? ????? ???? ????????? ??????? ????????? . ???? ??? ????? ????? ???????? ??? ??????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ?. ?????? . ??? ?????? ????? ????? ?? ?????? ?????? ???????? ????? ???? ?????????? ?????????? ???? ????????? ???? ??????? ???????. ??? ????? ???????? ?? ?????? ???????? ?? ?????? ??? 1939? ???? ??????? ??????? ??????? ???? . ????? ?????? ?????? ?? ?????? ?? ?????????? ≪?? ???? ?? ???? ?????? ??????? ?????? ??? ???? ??????? ???? ????? ?? ?? ??? ????? ????≫. [3]

???? ??????? ????????? ????? ???????? ?????? ?? ????? ???? ??? ???? ????? ???? ?????? ????? ??????? ????? ??? ???? ???????? . ???? ???? ?? ?????? ????????? ?? ????? ????? ???????? ?????? ?? ??? ? ???? ??? ?????? ? ??? ????? ?????? ???? ?? ??????????? ??????? ?? ??? ??? ?????????. ??? ??? ?????? ?? ??? ???? ????? ?? ??????? ???????? ????????? ??????? (?? ?? ????? ????? ≪??????≫) ?? ???? ?????? ?????????? ?????? ?? ?????? ?????? ??? ?? ????? ????? ??????. [4] ????? ???? ?????????? ?????????? ????? ???? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?????????? ??? ?????? ?? 27 ????? ??? 1940. [5] ????? ????? ????? ??? ????? ????? ??? ????? ??? ??????? ???????? ???????????? ????? ????? ??????????-235 ???????????? ? ???? ?????? ?? ??? 1940 ?? ????? ?????????? . [1] [6] ?? ?????? ???????? ?? ????? ??? 1941? ???? ?????? ????? ???????? ??? 8807? ???? ???? ???? ????? ???????? ??????? [7] ?????? ??????? ??? . ?????? ?????? ???? ???????? ?? ?????? ?????? ???? ????? ??? ???????. [6] ????? ???? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?????????? ????? ????? ??-1 ?????? ????? ????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ???? ≪??????????≫ ?????? ?????. [8]

?? ????????? ?????? ????? ??? 1939? ???? ???? ??????? ????? ?? ????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ?? ????? ?????? ?????? ??????????-235. [9] ????? ???????? ??? ?? ?????? ???? ??? ???? ???? ???? 10 ???????? (22 ???)? ??? ???? ????? ??? ???? ??? ?????? ????? ????? ?? ??? ?????. [10] ?? ??? ???? ?? ????? 1940? ???? ????? ????? - ?????? ??????? ????????? ??????? ?????? ????? ??? ??????? ??? [11] ???? ???? ???????? ??????? ????? ????? ????. [10] ?? ????? 1940? ???? ???????? ??? ???????? ??????? ???? ??????? ??? ??????? ???????? [12] ????? ??? ??????? ?? ???? ?????? ??????? ?????????? ??? ???????? ??????????. ????? ?? ??????? ???????? ??? ???? ?? ??????? ?????????? ???? ??????? ??????. [13] ?????? ??????? ???? ????? ????? ???? ??? ??? ???????? ???????? ?? ???? ??????? ?????? ??? ???????. ???? ??? ???????? ??? ????????? ????????? ???? ???????? ? ??? ???????? ??????? ?? ????? ????? ??? 1941 ?????? ?? ???????? ???? ?????? ???? ??? ?? ??? ???? ????? ???????? ??????????. ??? ???????? ?? ????? ?? ??? ????? ??????? ???? ????? ????? ??????. ????? ?? ???? ?????????? ???? ????? ??????? ?????? ?????????? ? ????? ???? ?????? ????? ??? ????? ???????? ????? . ?????? ?????? ??? ??? ??????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?? ??????????. ???? ????? ??? ???? ?. ?????? ? ????? ??. ??????? ? ????? ?. ?????? . ???? ??????? ????????? ????? ????? ???????? ?????????? ????????? ????? ??????? ??????? ??????. [14] [15]

?? ?????? ?? ?????? ??? 1941? ???? ?????? ?????? ??? ???????? ?????? ??? ?? ??? ???????? ?? ??????? ??? ????? ?????? ???? ?. ????? . ?????? ?? ????????? ???? ?????? ????? ???? ??? ?? ????? ????? ??? ??? ????? ???? ?? ??????????? ???? ?????? ????? ???????? ????? ????? ???? ?. ??????? ? ????? ????? ????? ??????? ???? ?????? . ????? ?????? ????? ?????? ??????? ????? ?? ???????? ???? ??? ????? ??? ???? ???? ?? ????? ?????? ?????? ??????. ???? ????? ??? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ???? ?????? ???????????? ??? ?????? ??? ?? ?????? ??? ?????? ??? ???? ??????? ?????? ????? ????? ???? ?? ??????? ???? ????????? ??????. [16]

?????? [ ??? ]

????????? [ ??? ]

???? ???? ??-1 ???????? ?? ?????? ??? ?? ?????? ??? 1941 ≪???? ????? ????? ?????? ????????≫ [17] ?? ????? ?????? ??? ???? ????? ??? ???? ?? ????? ???????? ??????? ????? ??? ??????? ?? ??? ???????. [18] ????? ????? ??? ???? ?????? ?????? ?? ??? ??????? ???? ??????????-235 ?? ??????????-238 ?????? ????. ??? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ?????????? ????? ?????????????? ? [1] ?? ??? ??? ???? ???? ?????? ????? ???????? ????? ?? ???????? ?????? ?? ????? ???????? ? ????? ????? ??????? ??????? ?? ???? ???????? ??????? ?? ????? ??????? ?? ?????? ??? ??? ???? ?? ???? ????? ??????? ????????? . [19] ??? ?????? ????? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ???????? ????? ????? ?????? ????? . [20]

?? ????? ????? ??? ???? ????? ?? ??????? ?? ?????? ????????? ??????? ? ?? ??????? ????? ?????? ???? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ?? ????????? ?? ??? ??? ???? ??????? ????? ?? ???????? ??????????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ??? ?????? ????????? ??? ????? ?? ????? ?????? ? ????? ??? ??????? ???????? ??????? ?? ????? ??? 1942 ?????? ??????????? ?????????? ???? ?????? ???????? ????? ??????????? . [21] ????? ????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ????? ?? ?????? ???????? ?? ???? ??? 1942 ???? ??????? ??????? ??? ?????? ???? ??-1? ???? ??? ??? ?????? ???????? ?????? ??????. ???? ??? ??? ????? ?? ??: ???? ???????? ??????? ?????? ??. ?????? ????? ????? ????? ??????? ?????? ????? ?. ??????? ???? ?????? ?????? ????? ?? ?????? ???????. [19] ?????? ???? ??? ??????? ??? ??????? ??? ?????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ????????? ?? ?????? ???????? ????? 54 ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ???? ?????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ? ?31 ????? ????? ????? ???????? ?? ???????? ????? ?????? ????? ??????? ?? ????? ?????? 1943. ?? ?????? ??? ?? ????? ??? 1942 ??????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ??? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ??????? ≪??????≫ ??????? ??????? ≪?? ?? ??≫ ??? ???????. [19]

?????? ????? ??????? [ ??? ]

??? ??????? ?? ????? ???????? ??????? ?. ????? ????????? ?? ????? ?????????? [1] ?? ????? ?????? ????? ????? ?? ?????? ??????????? ??????? ? ??? ????? ?? ???? ?????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ?? ??????? ???? ???? ??? ????? ?? ?????? ??? ?? ???? ??? 1942 ??????? ???? ????? ????? ????????. [22] ?????? ??? ???? ????? ? ????????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ????????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ????????? ???????? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ???????? ???? ?????. [23] ??? ????????? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ?????? ????? ?????? ??????????? : ??? ????? ??????????? ?? ????? ????? ????????? ??????? ? ???? ????? ?????? ???? ?? ????? ??????. ???????? ??? ????? ???????? ?????? ???????? ????????? ??? ?????????? ?????? ???????? ?? ????? ?????? ??  ????? ??? ????? ?????????? ?? ????? ??? 1942 ?? ????? ???????? ??????? ???? ???? ? ???? ??? ???? ? ??????? ????? ????? ?????????? ? ?????? ????? ????? ?????? ? ??????? ?? ??????? ?????? ??????? ????? ???????? ??????????? ?????? ???????? ????????? ?????? ????? ? ?????? ???? ? ??????? ?????? ? ???? ???? ????? ? ?????? ???????? . ????? ??????? ??? ???? ?????? ????? ????? ????????. [24]

??? ?? ???? ???? ?????? ?? ??????? ????????. ???? ????? ??????????-235 ????? ??? ?????? ??????? ?????? ????? ???????????? ??? ???? ?? ?????? ???? ?????? ?????? ??? ?? ?????? ??? 1941. ???? ??????? ?? ????? ??????? (????? 1942) ????? ??????????? ?? ????????? ??????? ???? ???? ???? ???? ??????????-238 ??????????? ???? ????? ?? ???? ??????????-235. ?? ????? ?? ????? ?? ??? ???????? ??? ????? ??? ????? ????? ?? ??????????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ?? ?????? ??? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ???? . [25] ?? ????? ??? ????????? ??? ?????? 1943. [26] ???? ??? ??? ?????? ?????? ?????????? ???? ??? ?????? ??????. ???? ???? ??? ????? ?? ????? ≪????? ????????≫ ??? ??? ?? ≪?????? ??????≫ ?? ???? ≪???≫ ????? ???? ??????????? ??? ?????? ????? ?????? ????????? ???? ?????? ???????. [27] ???????? ???? ?????? ????? ??? ???? ????? ? ??? ??? ????? ?? ????? ≪ ???????? ??????? ≫ ?????? ??????? ?? ?????? ? ???????? ??????? ?????? ????? ??????? ? ????? ???? ?? ???? ?? ???? ?? ????? ??????? ??? ????????. [28]

?????? ??? ???? ??????? ?????????? ???? ???????? ??????? ??? ????? ??? ???? ?????? ?? ???????? ????????? ??????? ??? ????? ??????? ???? 1942 ???? ??? ??? ??? ????? ?????. ????? ??? ?????? ???? ?? ??? ?????? ????? ???? ???: ≪?????≫? ????? ????? ???? ???? ≪ ??????? ???????????? ≫? ??????? ????? ????????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ????? ?????? ???? ?? ??????????? ?????????? . [29] ????? ???? ?????? ??? ?????? ??? ???? ????? ??????. ?????? ???? ???????? ?????? ??????? ??? ????? ??????? ??????????. [30] ???? ???? ????? ???????? ?????? ??? ????? ???? ???? ≪????≫ ?? ?????? ????? ???? ????? ??????? ????? ????? ??????????. ????? ?????? ???? ??? ??? ??????? ???? ???? [31] ????? ????? ???? ?? ?????? ???? ??? ≪?? ??? ?????? ?? ???? ?? ????? ?? ????????? ??????? ????? ????????≫. [32] ?? ????? ????? ??? ????????? ???????? ???? ??? ????????? ????? ??????? ? ???? ≪?? ????? ??? ??? ?? ????? ??? ?????. ???? ??? ???????? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ??? ??????≫ ?≪?? ??? ????? ?????≫.

??????? [ ??? ]

?????? ??????? [ ??? ]

?? ????? 1942? ????? ???? ?????????? ?????? ????? ??????? ?????? ???? ?? ?????? ????? ????? ??????? ?????? ?? ???????. ???? ?????? ???? ????? ?? ?????? ???????? ????? ???? ???? ?????? ?? ?????? ?????? ??? ?? ??? 270 ?? ??????? ????????? ????? ????? ????????? ?? ????? ??????? ?????? ?? ???? ???? ??????? ??????? ????? ?????????. ???? ?????? ?? ???? ???? ??? ?????? ?? ???????? ???? ??????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ????????. ??? ???? ????? ????? ????? ?? ?????? ???????? ?? ?????? ????????? ?? ??? ????????? ???? ?????? ?? ?????? ????? ?????? ???? ???? ?????. [33] [34]

??????? [ ??? ]

????? ????????? ???? ???? ????? ?? ???????
????? ????????

????? ?????? ???????? ???? ??? ??? 1934 ?? ?????? ??? ?????????? ??? ?? ??????? ??? ???????? ???? ?????? ????? ??? ??? ???? ????? ?? ???? ?? ???? ???? ????? ?? ?? ??? ??????. ????? ????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ?? ?????? ???????? ????? ????? ???? ??? ??????? ????? ????? ??????? ?????? ????? ???? ??? ???? ????.

???? ??? ????? ??? ??????? ??????? ???? ????? ??? ????? ????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ?? ????????? ???? ?????. ??? ???? ??????? ?????? ????? ?????????? ?? ????? ????????????? ???????. [35] ????? ???? ???? ????? ???? ??????????? ???????? ???????.

???? ????? ???????? ?? 2 ????? 1939 ? ???? ??? ????? ???????? ??????? ? ?????? ???? ???????? ??????? ????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ???? ?????? ??????? ???? ???? ?? ???????? ?????? ??? ???? ?? ???? ?????? ???? ??????? ?? ?????? ?? ??????? ???? ??????? ??????? ???? ??????? ???????.

???? ???????? ???? ?????? ????? ? ??? ?????? ??? ???? ???? ????? ??????? ? ???????? ??? ??? ??????? ?????? ?? ???????? ??????? ???? ???????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ????? ????? ???? ?? ????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ???? ?????? ??????? ???? ??????? ??? ???????? ??????? ????????? ??????? ?????? ???? ?????????.

??? ??? ???? ??????? ???????? ????????? ??? ??? ??????? ???? ???? ??? ?????? ???? ??????? ???? ?????? ??????? ??????? ? ???? ???? (200) ??? ??? ????? ?? ?????? ??????? ????????? ???????. ???????? ?? ?? ??? ?? ?????? ?????? ?? ???????.

?????????? [ ??? ]

??? ?????? ????? ??????? ?? ???????? ??? ??? ??????? ????? ????????? ? ???????? ????? ??? ????????? ? ??? ???? ?? ???? ?????? ???? ???????? ??? ???? ????? ????? ?????????? ?? ??? 1940? ????? ?? ????? ???????? ? ??? ???? ????????? ?????? ?? ????????? ????? ????????????? ? ??? ??????? ????????? . [36] ???? ???? ??? ????? ???? ??????? ?? ??? ?????????.

????? ??? ??? ?? ?????? ??? 1942 ?? ????? ??? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ???????? ????????? [37] ??? ??????? ???????? ?? ????? ???????? ????????? ?????? ????? ??????????? ???? ???????? ??? ???? 1200 ?? ?? ?????????? ????? ?? ??????? ?????????? ??? ?????? ???? ?????? ?? ?????? ?????? ????? ? ???????? ?????? ???? ??? ??????? ???? ?? ???? ??????? ?? ???????.

??? ????? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ????? ?? ??? ?????????? ????? ?? ??? ??????? ????? ??? ?? ???? ??? ????????? ????? ??????? ????? ?? 100 ??? ???? ??????? ??????? ??? ??? ????? ???? ?????? ??? ???? ??? ??? ?????? ????. [38]

????? ???? ??? ??????? ???? ????? ????? ????? ???? ????? ??????? ??? ?????? ?????????? ???????????? ?? ???????? ??? ???? ????? ?? ?????? ?? ??? ????? ???? ??? ???? ?? ????? ??????????? ???? ???? ???? ???? ?????? ????? ?? ???? ????????? ?? ??????? ?????????? ??? ????????? ???? ?? ?????? ??? ??????.

???? ??????? ??????? ??? ????? ?? ??? ????? ??? ?????? ??? ?? ??? ???? ?????? ???????? ??????? ?? ????? ?????? ???? ?????? ??????? ??????? (UMHK) [39] ??? ??? ?? ????? ??????? ????? ???????? ????????? ???? ?? 30% ?? ???? ?????? ???? ??? ???????? ?????????? ??? ????? ?????? ??????? ?? ??? ????? ??? ??????? ????? ??? ??????? ???? ?????? ????? ???? ?? ?????? ???????? ????????? ?? ???? 1944 ?? ??????? ??? ????? ??? ?????? ??? ???? 1750 ?? ???? ?? ?????? ????? ???? 3.19$ ?????? ???? ??????. [40]

?????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ??? ??????????? ????????? ?? ??? ?????? ????? ??? ????? ?????? ????? ???? ???? ???? ?? ?? ??????? ?? ??????? ?????? ????????? ??????? ???? ?????? ?? ???????? ???? ?????? 800 ?? ???? [41] (810 ?? ????).

???? ???? ?????????? ?? ????? ?????? ???? ?????? ????? ??? ?? ?????? ??? ??? ??????? ?????? ??? ?????????? ?? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ??? ????? ??????? ???? ????? ???? ???? ??????? ?? ??? ??????????? ???? ??? ??? ??? ????? ??? ?????? ?????? ???? ????? ?????????? ??? ?? ?????? ????? ???? ????? ?????????? ???? ???????.

?? ????? 1942 [42] ???? ??? ?????? ???? ?????? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ??????? ???? ???????? ??? ????? ??? ??? ???? ?????????? ???? ????? ???? ????? ?????????? ?? ????? ?????????? ?????? ???????? [43] ? ??????? ??? ?????? ???? ??????? ???? ??? ?????? ????? ?????.

?? ?????? ??? ??? ????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ???? ??? ????? ????? ??????? ??????? ?? ?????? ??? 1943 ????? ???? ????? ?????. [44]

????? ????? [ ??? ]

?? 17 ???? ???? ?????? ??????? ??????? :(??? ??? ????? ????) ????? ??? ???? ????? ???????. ???? ???? ?? ??????? ???????? ????? ?????? ???? ?? ????? ?????????? ?? ????? ??????. ??????????? ?????? ?? ????? ??????? ???????. ??????? ????? ??????? ?? ??? ??????? ?? ????? ????????? ?? ????? ???? ???? Jornada del Muerto ????? ???? ??? ????? ???? ??? ??????. ??? ??? ????? ????????? ??? ??? ???? ?? ??????? ?? ????? ?????? ???? ????? ??????? ( ??????????? : Manhattan Project )?.

??? ???? ?????? ?????? ????? ??? ??????? ??? ??????? ?? ???????.

??????? [ ??? ]

?????? ??????? ??? 31 ?????? 1945 [45]
????? ??????? ???????? ????? 1945 ??????? ???????? ????? 2015
??? ???? 1.19 ????? 15.6 ?????
??????? 390 ????? 5.11 ?????
???? ??????? ?????? 103 ????? 1.35 ?????
??? ?????? 74.1 ????? 970 ?????
??????? ???????? 69.7 ????? 913 ?????
????? ??????? ???????? 37.3 ????? 488 ?????
????? ????? ?????? 26.8 ????? 351 ?????
???????? 1.89 ????? 24.8 ?????

?????? ??????? ?? 1 ?????? 1945 ???? 1.845 ????? ?????? ??? ????? ?????? ????? ???? ???? ??? ????? ??????? ?? ???? ??? 2.191 ????? ????? ?? 1 ????? 1947 , ???? ???????? ??????? ??????? ???? 2.4 ????? ????? ???? ?? 90% ???? ???? ????? ??????? ?????? ????? ????? ????????. ??? ?? 10% ???? ????? ??????? ?????? ???????. [46] [47]

?????? ?????? ????? ???? ?? ??????? ??? ????? 1945 (???? ???????? ????? ??????? ????? ??????? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ?? ??????) ?? ???? ????? 500 ????? ??? ????? ???? ????? ???? 1945.

?????????? ?????? ????????? ??????? ?????? 1945 ???? ????? 90% ?? ???? ?????? ????? ??????? ??????? (??? ???? ???????) ?????? 34% ?? ???????? ???? ?? ??????? ??? ???????? ?????????? ???? ??? ?????? ???????. [45]

??????? [ ??? ]

?????? ??????? [ ??? ]

Organization chart of the project, showing project headquarters divisions at the top, Manhattan District in the middle, and field offices at the bottom
?????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ? ????? ?? ???? ??? 1946

??? ?????? ???????? ?? ??????? ????? ?.?????? ???? ??? ???? ????? ????????? ?????? ????????? ?????? ?????? ????? ?????. ?? ???? ???? ??????? ??????? ??? ???? ?????? ?????? ???????. ??? ?? ?? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?? ?????? ??? ??????? ??? ≪????? ?????? ???????≫? ??? ??? ????? ?? ??? ????? ???????. ???? ?????? ?????? ??? ????? ???????? ??????? ?? ??????? ≪?????? ???????≫? ????? ??? ?? ????????? ???????? ???? ?? ???? ??? ??????? ???? ??? ????. ???? ??? ?????? ?? ?????? ??? ? ?? ????? ????? ???? ?????? ????? ?????? ???????? ???????. ???? ???? ???? ??? ???? ???? ?????? ??????? ????????? ?? ≪?? ?? ??≫. ?? ??? ???? ???????? ???? ? ???????? ??? ??? ????????? ??????? ???? ??? ?????? ???? ????? ?? ?????. ?? ????? ?????? ??????? ????? ? ?????? ?????? ??????? ???? ???? ????? ????? ?? ???? ??? ≪ ??????? ≫. [34] [48]

????? ?????? ???? ???: ≪?? ???? ?? ?? ???????? ????? ? ??? ?? ??? ????? ?? ??? ?? ???? ???? ?????? ?? ???????? ??? ??? ????? ????? ?????? ????? ????? ??????≫. [49] ???? ???? ???? ?? ????? ?? ?? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ?????? ?? ????????? ??? ??????? ?????? ????? ?????. [50] ??? ???? ???? ????? ?? ????????? ?????? ??? ?????? ???? ????????? ?? ????? ?? ??????? ?????? ?? ????? ???????? ?? ?????? ??? ???? ??? ??? ???. ?????? ???? ??? ?? ???? ???? ??? ????? ???? ?? ?????? ???????. ???? ???? ??????? ?????? ?????? ??? ??????? ?????? ?????? ? ??? ????? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ???? ?????? ?? ???? ?????? ?????????? ???????? ????? ???? ??????? ?? ???? ???? ??????? ?????????. ??? ??????? ??? ?????? ????? ???? ????? ?????? ??? ???? ?? ??????. ????? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ?????? ????? ????? ??? ???? ??? ???? ?????? ??? ??? ???? ?????? ?? ??? ?????? ????? ????? ??????? ???? ?????? ?????? ??? ????? ?? ?????. [51] ???? ?? ??? ?? ??? ???????? ??? ?? ??? ?????? ?????????????? ?? ???? ???? ??? ?? ?????? ?? ???? ???? ??????. [52]

??? ?????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ???? ?????????. ???? ?????? ?????? ?? ?????? ??? ?????? ???? ???????. ?????? ????????? ??? ??-1 ?????? ??? ??-4 ?????? ????????? ??? ?? ???? ????? ??????? ??? ???? ???? ?????? ???????. ???? ????????? ??-1 ? ??-2 ???? ???????? ???????? ????????? ???? ??? ??????? ?????? ?. ????? [53] ???? ???? ????? ??????? ?????? ?????????? ????????? ?? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ??-3? ??? ???????? ?????? ????? ??? ??? ??? ?????? ?????? ??? ??? ??????. ??? ??? ?????? ???????. ??? ????? ??-3 ?? ??? ????? ?????? ???? ?????? ????? ?? ?? ?? ?? ????????? . [54]

???? ???????? ???????? [ ??? ]

A man smiling in a suit in suit and one in a uniform chat around a pile of twisted metal.
????????? ?????? ?? ???? ?????? ?????? ??? ???? ? ? ? ?? ?????? ??? 1945? ??? ????? ?? ???????? ???????? ???? ????? ????? ???????? ??????? ??????. ???? ??????????? ??????? ??? ?????? ?????? ???????? ????? ???????. [55]

?? ??? ??????? ??? ???? ??????? ??????? ?????? ????? ????? ???????? ??? ??? ??????? ???? ??? ??????? ????? ?? ?????? ??? ???? ??????? ????????? ???????? ???? ?????? ????? ???????? ????? ???? ?? ????? ???????. ??? ??? ??? ????? ????? ????? ???? ?????? ????? ??? ????? ???? ?????????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ?? ??????. ?????? ?????? ?? ??? ??????? ?? ???? ???? ????? ??????? ????? ?????????? ??? ?????? ????? ?????? ???????? ????? ?? ???? ?????. [56]

????? ?????? ?????? ????? ???? ??????? ???????? ?? ?????? ??? ?? ?????? ???? ??????? ??? ??????? ?????? ??? ??????? ??? ???? ???????? ?????? ?? ?? ??? ≪?????≫ ????? ?? ????? ???? ??? ??????? ??????????? ???????? ?? ????? ???????. [57] ??? ???? ????? ???? ?????? ??????? ????? ?? ??????? ?? ????????? ?????? ????? ???? ???? ?????. [58] ???? ????? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ??????? ?? ?????? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ????? ??????? ????? ??? ???? ????? ????????? ??????. [59] ???? ????? ????? ??????? ?? ?????? ???????? ?? ??????. ?? ??? ???? ?? ??? ?????? ??? ???????? ??? ???? ???????? ????? ???? ???? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???? ???? ???????? ?????? ??????? ?? ??? (?? ?????? ?????)? ??????? ?????????? ?????? ?????? ?. ??????. ?????? ?????? ??????? ?? ??? ???? ????????? ?????? ??????. [60]

?? ?????? ??? ?? ??????? ??? ????? ??? ?????? ??????? ???? ???? ??????? ??????? ???? ???? ????? ???????? ????? ??? ??? ???? ???. [61] ?? ??????? ??? ?????? ???? ????? ?? ???? ????? ??? ????? ??????? ??? ??????. ??? ????? ???? ??????? ????? ??? ?? ?? ??? ??? ???????. ????? ?? ???? ??? ??????? ????????? ????????? ??????? ? ??? ????? ??? ??????? ???? ???? ?? ??? ?????? ??? ????? ??-3 ??????? ??????. ??? ???? ????? ? ??? ????? ?? ??????? ??? ???? ??????? ??-1 ?? ????? ?? ????? ??? 1944. [62] ???? ?????? ≪????? ?? ?????? ????? ???????? ??????. ????? ??? ??? ????? ?? ????? ?????? ?????? ????. ?????? ??? ???? ????? ?? ???????? ?????? ????? ??? ???????? ?????? ???? ???≫.

???? ??????? ??????? ???? ?????? ????? ?? ?????? ??? ????? ?????? ???? ?? ???????? ???? ?????   ????????. ??? ??????? ?????? ??? ????? ????????? ?????? ? ????? ?? ??????? ?? ???????? ??? ?? ??? ?????? ????? ??  ??? ??? ????? ????????. ?? ??? ??? ????????? ???? ?????? ?????? ??? ??? ?????? ??? ????? ???? ??? ???? ????? ??????? ????????? ??? ??????? ???? ??? ?????? ?? ??????? ?? ???? ??? ??????? ????? ???? ?? ???? ?????? ?????. ???? ???? ????? ????? ???? ????? ?????? ??????????? ?? ??? ?????? ?? ?????? ?? ????????? ? ??? ?? ??? ????? ????? ?????????? ?????? ????? ???????? ??? ??????. ?? ?????? ??? 1942? ???? ?????? ???? ?????? ????? ????? ??????? ? ?? ????????? ???? ????? ??????? ???? ????? ????? ????? ????? ?? ????? ????? ???? ?????? ????? ??. ????? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ??????? ????? ??????? ?????????? ?? ??????? ?? ????? ??? 1943. [63] [64]

???? ??? [ ??? ]

???? ????? [ ??? ]

????? [ ??? ]

  1. ^ ? ? ? ? The University of California was founded on March 23, 1868, and operated in Oakland before moving to its campus in Berkeley in 1873. "A brief history of the University of California | UCOP" . www.ucop.edu (???????????). Archived from the original on 2023-01-18 . Retrieved 2018-04-06 . California, University of. "UC 150th Anniversary Timeline" . UC 150th Anniversary Timeline (???????????). Archived from the original on 2023-01-18 . Retrieved 2018-04-06 . In March 1951, the University of California began to reorganize itself into something distinct from its campus at Berkeley. "Past Chancellors | Office of the Chancellor" . chancellor.berkeley.edu (???????????). Archived from the original on 2022-12-04 . Retrieved 2018-04-06 . See also the Wikipedia article on the University of California.
  2. ^ Jones 1985 ? ???? 12.
  3. ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962 ? ????? 16?20.
  4. ^ "Fermi at Columbia | Department of Physics" . physics.columbia.edu . ????? ?? ????? ?? 2019-06-21 . ???? ???? ?????? 2019-07-29 .
  5. ^ Rhodes 1986 ? ????? 337?338.
  6. ^ ? ? Hewlett & Anderson 1962 ? ????? 40?41.
  7. ^ "Executive Order 8807 Establishing the Office of Scientific Research and Development" . 28 ????? 1941. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2017-09-17 . ???? ???? ?????? 2011-06-28 .
  8. ^ Jones 1985 ? ???? 33.
  9. ^ Rhodes 1986 ? ????? 322?325.
  10. ^ ? ? Hewlett & Anderson 1962 ? ???? 42.
  11. ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962 ? ????? 39?40.
  12. ^ Phelps 2010 ? ????? 126?128.
  13. ^ Phelps 2010 ? ????? 282?283.
  14. ^ Rhodes 1986 ? ????? 372?374.
  15. ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962 ? ????? 43?44.
  16. ^ Jones 1985 ? ????? 30?32.
  17. ^ Jones 1985 ? ???? 35.
  18. ^ Williams 1960 ? ????? 3?4.
  19. ^ ? ? ? Jones 1985 ? ????? 37?39.
  20. ^ Nichols 1987 ? ????? 32.
  21. ^ Jones 1985 ? ????? 35?36.
  22. ^ Rhodes 1986 ? ???? 416.
  23. ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962 ? ???? 103.
  24. ^ Hoddeson et al. 1993 ? ????? 42?44
  25. ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962 ? ????? 33?35, 183.
  26. ^ Groves 1962 ? ???? 41.
  27. ^ Serber & Rhodes 1992 ? ???? 21.
  28. ^ Hoddeson et al. 1993 ? ????? 54?56
  29. ^ Rhodes 1986 ? ???? 417.
  30. ^ Hoddeson et al. 1993 ? ????? 44?45
  31. ^ Rhodes 1986 ? ???? 419.
  32. ^ Konopinski? E. J? Marvin? C.? Teller? Edward (1946). "Ignition of the Atmosphere with Nuclear Bombs" (PDF) . Los Alamos National Laboratory. ????? ?? ????? (PDF) ?? 2020-03-31 . ???? ???? ?????? 2008-11-23 . {{ ??????? ??? }} : ?????? |ref=harv ??? ???? ( ?????? )
  33. ^ Broad? William J. (30 ?????? 2007). "Why They Called It the Manhattan Project" . The New York Times . ????? ?? ????? ?? 2020-04-26 . ???? ???? ?????? 2010-10-27 .
  34. ^ ? ? Jones 1985 ? ????? 41?44.
  35. ^ ?????? ??????? ?????? - ??????? ??????? ???? ?????? 05 ?????? 2017 ??? ???? ??? ??? ???? .
  36. ^ ????? ???????, p. 39.
  37. ^ Smyth 1945, p. 92.
  38. ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962 , pp. 85?86. ???? ?????? 03 ?????? 2017 ??? ???? ??? ??? ???? .
  39. ^ Jones 1985 , p. 295. ???? ?????? 06 ???? 2017 ??? ???? ??? ??? ???? .
  40. ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962, pp. 285?288.
  41. ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962, pp. 291?292.
  42. ^ Ruhoff & Fain 1962 , pp. 3?9 ???? ?????? 30 ???? 2015 ??? ???? ??? ??? ???? .
  43. ^ Hoddeson, Lillian; Henriksen, Paul W.; Meade, Roger A.; Westfall, Catherine L. (1993). Critical Assembly: A Technical History of Los Alamos During the Oppenheimer Years, 1943?1945. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-44132-3 . OCLC 26764320
  44. ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962, pp. 87?88.
  45. ^ ? ? Hewlett & Anderson 1962, pp. 723?724.
  46. ^ Nichols, Kenneth David (1987). The Road to Trinity: A Personal Account of How America's Nuclear Policies Were Made. New York: William Morrow and Company. ISBN 0-688-06910-X . OCLC 15223648
  47. ^ "Atomic Bomb Seen as Cheap at Price" . Edmonton Journal. 7 August 1945. p. 1. Retrieved 1 January 2012. ???? ?????? 07 ????? 2016 ??? ???? ??? ??? ???? .
  48. ^ Broad? William J. (30 ?????? 2007). "Why They Called It the Manhattan Project" . ??????? ????? . ????? ?? ????? ?? 2020-04-26 . ???? ???? ?????? 2010-10-27 .
  49. ^ Fine & Remington 1972 ? ???? 652.
  50. ^ Nichols 1987 ? ???? 174.
  51. ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962 ? ????? 76?78.
  52. ^ Fine & Remington 1972 ? ???? 654.
  53. ^ Jones 1985 ? ????? 57?61.
  54. ^ Fine & Remington 1972 ? ???? 657.
  55. ^ "Science:Atomic Footprint" . Time . 17 ?????? 1945. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2013-05-21 . ???? ???? ?????? 2011-03-16 .
  56. ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962 ? ???? 81.
  57. ^ Jones 1985 ? ????? 74?77.
  58. ^ Groves 1962 ? ????? 27?28.
  59. ^ Fine & Remington 1972 ? ????? 659?661.
  60. ^ Groves 1962 ? ????? 44?45.
  61. ^ Groves 1962 ? ????? 22?23.
  62. ^ Jones 1985 ? ????? 80?82.
  63. ^ Groves 1962 ? ????? 61?63.
  64. ^ Nichols 1987 ? ????? 72?73.

????? ?????? [ ??? ]

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