?????

	; ??????? ?????? ?? ???? ???? ??????? .
???????	???? ????
???????	?????
????????	????? ?????
???????	?????????????
???? ???????	????? ????????
???????	???? ?????
?????	γ? h ν ? ?? ħ ω
??????	0 ; < 1 × 10 ?18 [[eV/c 2 ]]
????? ?????	?????
?????? ??????????	0 ; < 1 × 10 ?35 e
???????	1
C parity	-1
Condensed	???????? ( J ????? (??????) ????? ?????? ‏ ) = 0,1(1 -- )
	????? ????? - ?????

?? ???????? ? ??????? ^[3] ( ??????????? : Photon )? ?????? ??? ?????? ?????? ^[3] ?? ???????? ^[4] ?? ???? ???? ????? ????? ????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ?????????????? ? ??????? ????? ??????????????? . ???? ?????? ??????? ??? ????? ?? ??? ????????? ???????????? ?????????????? ???? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ???? ???? ??????? ???????? ?? ???????? ???????. ??? ?? ??? ?? ???????? ??????? ? ???? ???????? ???? ?????? ???? ????? ?????????? ?????????? ????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ? ????? ????? ???? ?? ??????? ????????? ??? ???? ??????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ? ??? ?????? ????? ????? ?????? ????? ????? ??? ???? ?????? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ???? ?????? ? ?????? ?????? ?????????? ? ???????? ????? ????? ?? ?????? ????? ????? .

??? ????? ???????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ????????? ????????? ??? ???????? ?????? ???? ????? ????????? ??? ??? ????? ??????? ??? ??? ?????? ?????? ???? ????? ??? ????? ? ???? ?????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ????? . ??? ??? ??????? ?????? ??????? ????????? ?????? ?????? ????? ????? ?????? ? ???? ??? ?????? ?? ??????????? ???? ????? ???? ????? ??? ??????? ???????? ????? ??? ??????? ??? ????? ???????? ??????? ????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ????? . ?????? ?? ?????? ??? ??????? ????? ??????? ?? ????? ???????? ???? ? ??? ??????? ??????? ????? ?? ??? ????? ???????? ??? ????? ?? ???? ???? ??? ????????? ?? ?? ????? .

?? ??????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ? ???? ????????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ????? ??????? ???????? ?? ?? ???? ?? ??????? . ????? ??????? ??????? ??? ???? ??????? ???????? ????????? ??????? ??????? ????? ??????? . ??? ??? ????? ??????? ??? ???? ???? ?? ???? ???????? ??????? ?????????? ? ?????????? ? ?????? ??? ????????? ? ?????? ????? ??????? ? ????? ???????? ????????? ???? ? ??? ?? ?????? ??? ???????? ??????? ? ???????? ????? ?????? ? ??????? ???????? ????????. ?????? ?? ????? ????????? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ??????? ?????????? ???????? ?? ????????? ??????? ??? ??????? ???????.

????? ??????? ???? ?????? ?? ?????? ??? ????????:

E={\frac {hc}{\lambda }}

?

??? $h$ ?? ???? ????? ? ? $c$ ???? ?????? ? $\lambda$ ??? ?????? .

???? ?????? [ ??? ]

???? ???? ???????? ??? ????? ?????? ??? ??? ????? ??? ??? ???? ?? ??????. ??? ??? ???????? ??????? ???? ?? ???? ?? ???? ???????? (1021) ???? ?????? ? ???? ????? ?? ???? ????? ????? ?? ?????? ?? ?????? ????? ???? ????? ????? ??? ???????? ?????? ??? ??????. ^[5] ??? ??? ??? ????? ????? ????? ?? ????? ?????. ??? ???? ????? ?????? ??? ????? ??? ????? ???????? ??????? ????????? ??????? ?????? ??? ?????? ?????? ?????? ????? ????? ?????? (1637)? ^[6] ????? ??? (1665)? ^[7] ????????? ?????? (1678); ^[8]? ?????? ?? ???? ??? ????? ?????? ?? ???????? ???? ????? ?????? ????? ????? . ^[9] ?? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ??? ?? ?? ????? ???? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ????? ??????? ????? ??? ????? 1850 ?? ???? ????? ?????? ??????. ^[10] ?? 1865 ? ?????? ???? ???? ??????? ^[11] ??? ????? ????? ?? ???? ????????????? ????? ???? ??????? ?? 1888 ?????? ???? ????? ??????? ?? ??? ????? ????? ' ^[12]???? ???? ??? ???? ?????? ????? ????????.

?? 1900? ??????? ??????? ?????? ????? ??? ??? ????? ?????? ??????? ????????? ??? ??????. ?? ???? ?????? ?? ????????? ?? ??? ?????? ??????? ??? ????? ???? ?? ??????? ?????????????? ? ???? ??? ?????? ??????? ??? ???? ????? ???? ?? ???? ?? *?????* ??????? ???????? E=hν. ???? ????? ????? ?? ???? ????? ??? ???? ????? ???? ???? ?????? ???? ???????? ?????? : ??? ????? **???????** ? ?????? ??? ???? ???? ???????? ?????????? ??????????? ?????.

?? ????? ?????? ???????? ? ?? ???? ?? ???? ?????? ????? ????? ?????. ????? ????? ??????? ??? ???? ???? ????? ????? ??? ??? ????? ? ??? ??? ?????? ? ??? ????? ?? ?? ????? ????? ?? ??????? ???????? ???? ?? ?????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ????? ??? ???? ????? ??? ???? ????. ??? ???? ??????? ??? ????????? ?????????? ??? ??????? ??? ?? ???? ??? ????? ???? ?? ?? ????. ??? ??? ??? ????? ?? ???? ??? ????? ???? ???? ?? ???? ???????. ??????? ???????? ??? ????????? ?? ????? ?????? ?????? ??? ?? ???? ???? ???? ??? ????? ( ????? ???????? )? ????? ???? ??????????? ???????? ????? ????? ???? ???? ?????. ^[13]^{[??????? 1]}

?????? ??????? [ ??? ]

???? ????? ???? ??????? ????????? ?? ?????? ??????? ??? ???:

1900 : ??? ????????? ???? ????? ????? ??? ????? ?????? ????????? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ???? ???? ??? ?? ?? ?????? ???? ??? ???? ???????? ???????? ?? ?? ?????? ??????????????? .
1902 : ?????? ????????? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ?? ???? ?????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ??? ??? ??? ????? ???? ??? ??? ????? ?????????.
1905 : ?????? ????????? ????? ???????? ???? ??? ?? ???? ??????? ????? ??? ????? ?????? ?? ??????? ?????? ????? ????? ???????? ?? ???? ???? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ??? ????? ???????? ?? ???? ???? ??? ????? ??????.
1922 : ?????? ????????? ???? ??????? ???? ??????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ?? ???? ??? ??? ?? ????????? ?? ?? ?????? ?????? ?????? ????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ?? ??????????? ????? ??? ???????? ?? ?????? ??????? ????? ????? ?????? ??????? ??? ????? ????????? ? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ?????? ??????? ??? ???? ???.

??????? ?? ?????? [ ??? ]

????? ??????? ?? ?????? ????? ????? 299792458 ???/????? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ??? ??? ??? ????? ??? ??? ??????.

?????? ???? ???? ????? ????? $E$ ??? ???? ????? $h$ ????? ????????:

E=h\nu \,.

???:

$\nu$ ???? ???? ???????

????? ??? ?????? ?????? ?????? ????? ?? ????????? ???????:

E=\hbar \omega =(6{,}582\,119\,15\cdot 10^{-16}\ \mathrm {eV\cdot s} )\cdot \omega

,

???:

$E$ ???? ??????? ?????????? ???? eV

\hbar =h/2\pi

$\omega$ : ?????? ?????? (1/?????).

???? ??? ?????? ??????: (?? ???????) ω = 1,520 · 10 ¹⁵

???? ???? ???????: E = 1 eV

???? ???? ???? ??? ?? ????? ??? ?????? ??? ??????? .

??? ???? ???? ???? ??????? ?????? ??? ????? ? ?? ????????:

E=h\cdot \nu =h\cdot c/\lambda =\left(1{,}239\,841\,939\ \mathrm {eV\mu m} \right)/\lambda

???:

λ ??? ???? ??????? ???????????

???? ???? ??? ???? ??????? ?????= 1,240 ???????? ??? ????? 1240 ???????

????? ???? ???????: E = 1 eV

????????? ??? ???? ??? ?? ??? ???? 620 ??????? ???? ???? ???????? ???????? ???? ????? = 2 ??????? ????.

???????? ????? ???????? ????? ????? ??? ???? ?? ???? ????? ???? ??? ???? ???? $p$ ??? ???? ???????? ??????? ??????? ?? ???????? ???? :

p={\frac {h\nu }{c}}={\frac {h}{\lambda }}\,.

??? ???? ??????? [ ??? ]

???? ??????? ?????? ?? ?????? ????? ?????????? ????? ????? ????? ???? ??????? ????? ????? ??? ??????????? ?? ????? ???? ????? ???? ??? ?????? ????????? ?????? ?? ??? ??????? ?????? ?? ???? ??? ????? ???? ???? ????? ???? ?????? ?? ???? ????? (???? ???) ?? ???? ???? ?? ?? ??? ???? ?????.

???? ???????? ??? ???? ?????? ???? ??? ??????? ????? ??? ???? ??? ??????? 589 ??????? ? 590 ???????. ???? ???? ???????? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ????? ? ???? ???????? ??? ???????.

???? ?????? ???? ???? ?? ????????? ??? ???????? 579 ? 577 ??????? ????? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ??? ???? ?? ??? ???? 546 ??????? ???? ??? ?? ????? ????? ?????? .

??? ?? ??? ????????? ???? ????? ???? ??? ??????????? ?? ????? ?????? ??? ??? ????? ?????. ???? ???? ??? ????????? ??? 0.5 ? 0.6 ??????? ???? (?? ??? ?? 1 ??????? ????).

????? ???? ?????????? ????? ?? ???? ????????????? ? ????? ???? ????? ?????? ??? ???? ????? ?????? ? ?????? ????? ???? ?? ???? ?? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ??????? ??? ?????? ??????? ???????? ???? ???? ???? ?????. ????? ?????? ??????? ????? ???? ??????? ?? ????? ??? ?? ????? ??? ???? ???? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ??????. ????? ??? ????? ????????? ?????? ???? ??? ??? ???? ??????? ????.

????? ??? ?? ????????? ?? ???? ????? ???? ???? ??? ?????? ??????? ???? ??? ???? ???? . ??? ????????? ?? ???? ?? ?????? ????? ???????? ????? ???? ?? ???? ?????.

??????? [ ??? ]

?? ??? 1900? ??? ???? ????? ???? ??? ????? ????? ????? ?????? ? ????? ??? ?? ?????? ?? ??????? ??????????????? ?? ????? ?? ????? ??? ??? ??? ≪??? ?????≫ ?? ??????? ???? ????? ≪??????≫ (??? ??). ?????? ??? ??? 1905? ??? ????? ???????? ??? ???? ?? ??? ??? ??? ?? ??????? ??????????????? ?? ????? ?? ???? ??? ??? ??? ??? ????. ^[14] ??? ???? ????? ????? ??????? ??? ≪???? ?????≫. ??? ???? ≪?????≫ ??? ????? ?? ?????? ????????? "φω?" (???) ????? ???? ≪???≫. ??? ??? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ????????? ????? ???? ?? ??? 1926 ? ????? ??? ????? ??????? -??? ???????? ??? ?? ≪????????? ?? ?????? ??? ???? ≫. ^[15] ??????? ?? ?? ????? ???? ?? ????? ?????? ???????? ?? ?????? ?? ??????? ???????? ??? ?? ???? ??????????? ???????? ≪??????≫ ?????? ?????? ??? ??? ???????. ??? ????? ?????? ? ???? ??????? ?? ?? ???? ≪???? ??????≫ ????? ≪???????≫ ?? ??? 1923 . ^[16]^[17]

????? ?? ????? ?? ???????? ??? ??????? ???? "γ" (????? ???????? ≪????≫). ????? ?????? ??? ????? ??????? ????? ???? (????? ??????? ??????? ????????? ≪???? ??????≫ ?? ??? 1990 ^[18]^[19]) ???? ????? ???? ?? ??????? ??????????????? ?? ??? 1914 . ^[20] ?? ???????? ???????? ??????? ????? ????????? ???? ?????? "hν"? ??? ?? "h" ?? ???? ????? ?"ν" ?? ??? ?????? ??? ??? ???? ???????. ????? ??? ??? ?????? ?? "hf" ??? "f" ?????? ?????? ?????????? "frequency" ????? ???? ????.

??????? ?????????? [ ??? ]

??????? ???? ?????? ( ???? ????? ) ??????? ?????????? ^[21] ??? ????? ?? ?????? ??????. ??????? ?? ??????? ?????? ????? ??????????????? ^[22]? ??????? ?? ??????? ?????? ?????? ??????? (??? ??? ???????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ) ?? ??? ^[23]

??????? ??? ???? ???? ???? ??????? ?? "E = pc"? ??? ?? "E" ?? ?????? ?"p" ?? ????? ???? ??? ?????? ?"c" ?? ???? ?????. ^[24] ???? ???? ???? ??????? ??????? ??? ??? ??? ????? (ν) ?? ???? ???? ??? ???? ?????? (λ):

E=\hbar \omega =h\nu ={\frac {hc}{\lambda }}

??? ?? "K" ?? ≪???? ??????≫ ?"ω" ?? ?????? ?????? ?"ħ" ?? ???? ????? . ^[25]

?????? ???? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?? ????? ??? ?????. ?????? ?????? ?? $\scriptstyle {{\sqrt {2}}\hbar }$

?????? [ ??? ]

?????? ?????? ?? ??????? ???? ?????? ???????? ^{[??????? 2]} ?????? (????? ???????? ???? ????? ???? ?? ?? ?? ???). ?? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?? "c" ????? ???? ???? ????? ?? ???? ?? ?? ???? ????? ????? ???? ?????? ?????? ???? ????? ??? ??? ?????? ??? ?????? ?? ??????? . ^[26] ????? ????? ?? ???? ???? ??????? ?? ??????? (????? ???????? ?????????)? ????? ???? ???? ????????? ?? ?????? ???????.

?????????? ??????? [ ??? ]

?? ?????? ?? ?????? ???????? ??? 1905 ???????? ???? ??? ???? ??????? ??????? ?? ????? ??????? . ??? ????? ??????? (????? ???????) ???? ????? ?? ????????? ???? ??? ???? ?????? ?? ??? ?????? ( ?????? ) ??? ???? ??????????? ??????? ?? ???????? ??? ??????? ?????????????? ?? ???? ?????? ????? ?? ??? ??? ???? ?????? ????? ??? ????? ?????? ???? ?? ??? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ???????. ????? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ???? ??? ????? ??? ????? ??????? ? ??? ??? ?? ??????? ???? ??? ???? ??????? ??? ????? ???? ?????? ??????? ????????.

??? ??? ????? ??????? ? ??? ?? ?? ???? ??? ??????? ?????? ?????? ? ???? ????? ????? ??????? ????? ?????? ??? ????? ??????? ????? ?????????????? ??????? ????? ????? ???? ????? ??? ????? BKS ???? ??? (????-??????-?????) ( ??????????? : Bohr-Kramers-Slater )? ^[en]. ?????? ???????? ???? ???? ?????? ????? ?? ??????? ??? ???? ?? ??? ??????? ???????:

??? ?????? ??? ?????? ???? ?????? ??? ?? ??????? ?????? ??????? ??? ?????? ???????? ???? ?? ???????? ?????????? ????????? ?????????. ??? ???? ???????? ??? ?????? ???????? ???????? ?????? (????? ??? ??????? ??????) ???????? ??????? ?????? ??? ???? ?????.
?????? ?? ???????: ????? ????????? ????????? ?? ??? ??????? ????? ?? ???? ???????? ≪???????≫.

??? ???? ????? ????? ??????? ??????? ??? ??? ?????? ???? ?????? ??? ???? ??? ???? ?? ???????? ??????????? ??? ?????? ????????? ?????? ????? ???? ?? ????? ??????? ???? ??????? ???? 10 ???? ????? . ???? ???? ???? ??? ??????? ????? ????? ???????? ??? ????????. ??? ??? ???? ??? ????? ????? ????-??????-????? ????????? ????? ????????? ?? ?????? ????????? ????????? .

????? ?????? ?? ??????????? ?? ????? ??????? ????? ??????? ????? ??? ??????? ?????????????? ???? ??? ???? ????? ???? ?????? ??????? ???????? ???? . ?????? ?? ?? ?????? ??? ???? ????????? ?? ??????? ?????????? ??????????? ???? ?????? ????? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ????? ????????? ??? ??????? ??? ????? ??????? . ??? ??? ???? ?????? ?? ???????? ????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ?? ?????????? ???????????? ?? ????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ????????. ???? ??? ????? ?? ????? ???? ???????? ????? ???????? ??? ??????? ????? ????? ???? ???? ???????.

???? ????? [ ??? ]

??????? [ ??? ]

^ ????? ??? ???? "??? ????? ?? ???? ?????" ???? ??? ????? ????? ??? 10 ¹³ W/cm ² ?????? ????? ???? ????? ???? ????? ??????? ?????????. ?????? ???????? ?? ????? ?????? ????? ???? ????? ?????? ?????? ??? 10 ¹⁴ W/cm ²? ????? ????? ????????? ?????? ?? ?????? ???????? ?????? ???????????? ???? ???? ?????? ??????? . ???? ????? ^[1]. ?????????? ??? ??? ????? ??? ??? 0.1 W/cm ². ???? ?????? 2017-10-11 ?? Wayback Machine
^ ????? ????? ??????? ?????? ????????? ?? ???? ??????? ????? ?? ???? ?? ??? ????? ????? ????? ?? ???? ?????. ???? 86% ?? ???? ????? ?????? ??????. ????? ??? ???? ??????? ??????? ?? ?????? ???: ?????? ???????? ? ??? ???? ??????? ????? ???? ?????. ??????? ??????? ? ??? ???? ??????? ????? ????? ??? ????? ???? ?????.

??????? [ ??? ]

^ ^? ^? ^? ^? Amsler, C. et al. ( Particle Data Group ) (2008 +2009 partial update). "Review of Particle Physics: Gauge and Higgs bosons" (PDF) . Physics Letters B . ?. 667: 1. Bibcode : 2008PhLB..667....1P . DOI : 10.1016/j.physletb.2008.07.018 . ????? ?? ????? (PDF) ?? 28 ????? 2018. {{ ??????? ?????? ????? }}: ???? ?? ??????? ??: |???= ( ?????? )
^ Official particle table for gauge and Higgs bosons Retrieved 24 October 2006 ???? ?????? 2016-12-28 ?? Wayback Machine
^ ^? ^? ??? ??????? ????? ??????? ???? ?????? ???? ?????? (2016)? ???? ??????? ??????? ?????????? ???????????? ?????????? (???????? ???????????)? ????: ???? ????? ??????? ????? ? ?. 143? QID : Q108405620
^ ???? ???? ?? (2017). ??????? ?????? ?????? (???????? ???????????) (?. 1). ?????: ??? ????? ??????? . ?. 353. ISBN : 978-2-7451-3066-2 . OCLC : 1229995179 . QID : Q124425203 .
^ Rashed? R. (2007). "The Celestial Kinematics of Ibn al-Haytham". Arabic Sciences and Philosophy . ????? ????? ???????? . ?. 17 ?. 1: 7?55 [19]. DOI : 10.1017/S0957423907000355 . ?? ????? ???????? ???? ????? ?? ????? ? ??? ??????? ????? ??? ?????? ???? ??????? ???? ???????? ????????? ??????? ???? ????????.
^ Descartes? R. (1637). Discours de la methode ( ???? ?? ?????? ) . Imprimerie de Ian Maire . (?????????)
^ Hooke? R. (1667). Micrographia: or some physiological descriptions of minute bodies made by magnifying [[?????]] with observations and inquiries thereupon... London (UK): ??????? ??????? . ????? ?? ????? ?? 2008-12-02. {{ ??????? ????? }}: ????? ???? ?? ???? ( ?????? )
^ Huygens? C. (1678). Traite de la lumiere . (?????????) . An ????? ???????? ??????? ?? ????? ???????
^ Newton? I. (1952) [1730]. Opticks (?. 4th). Dover (NY): Dover Publications . Book II, Part III, Propositions XII?XX, Queries 25?29. {{ ??????? ????? }}: ?????? ??? ??????? |nopp= ?? ?????? ????? ??????? |no-pp= ( ?????? )
^ Buchwald? J.Z. (1989). The Rise of the Wave Theory of Light: Optical Theory and Experiment in the Early Nineteenth Century . ??? ??? ????? ?????? . OCLC : 18069573 .
^ Maxwell? J.C. (1865). " A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field ". ????????? ???????? ??????? ??????? . ?. 155: 459?512. DOI : 10.1098/rstl.1865.0008 . ??? ??? ?????? ????? ???????? ?? ??????? ?? 8 ?????? 1864 ??????? ???????.
^ Hertz? H. (1888). "Uber Strahlen elektrischer Kraft". Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Berlin) . ?. 1888: 1297?1307. (??????????)
^ ?????? ?????? ??????? ?. 276f., ??????? ?????????? ??? 1.4 ?? Alonso? M.? Finn? E.J. (1968). Fundamental University Physics Volume III: Quantum and Statistical Physics . ??????-????? ^[??????????].
^ Einstein? A. (1905). "Uber einen die Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes betreffenden heuristischen Gesichtspunkt" . Annalen der Physik . ?. 17: 132?148. DOI : 10.1002/andp.19053220607 . ????? ?? ????? ?? 2022-05-28. (??????????) . A partial English translation is available from ???? ???? .
^ Lewis? G.N. (1926). "The conservation of photons". ????? (????) . ?. 118: 874?875. DOI : 10.1038/118874a0 .
^ Asimov? I. (1966). The Neutrino, Ghost Particle of the Atom . Garden City (NY): ??????? . LCCN 660-3 .
^ Asimov? I. (1966). The Universe From Flat Earth To Quasar . New York (NY): Walker . LCCN 660-5 .
^ Villard? P. (1900). "Sur la reflexion et la refraction des rayons cathodiques et des rayons deviables du radium". Comptes Rendus des Seances de l'Academie des Sciences (Paris) . ?. 130: 1010?1012. (?????????)
^ Villard? P. (1900). "Sur le rayonnement du radium". Comptes Rendus des Seances de l'Academie des Sciences (Paris) . ?. 130: 1178?1179. (?????????)
^ Rutherford? E. (1914). "The Wavelength of the Soft Gamma Rays from Radium B". Philosophical Magazine . ?. 27: 854?868. {{ ??????? ?????? ????? }}: ?????? author-name-list parameters ???? ???? ?? ??? ( ?????? )
^ Kobychev? V.V. (2005). "Constraints on the photon charge from observations of extragalactic sources". Astronomy Letters . ?. 31: 147?151. DOI : 10.1134/1.1883345 . {{ ??????? ?????? ????? }}: ?????? author-name-list parameters ???? ???? ?? ??? ( ?????? )
^ Role as gauge boson and polarization section 5.1 in Aitchison? I.J.R.? Hey? A.J.G. (1993). Gauge Theories in Particle Physics . IOP Publishing .
^ See p.31 in Amsler? C. (2008). "Review of Particle Physics". Physics Letters . ?. B667: 1?1340. {{ ??????? ?????? ????? }}: ?????? author-name-list parameters ???? ???? ?? ??? ( ?????? ) .
^ See section 1.6 in Alonso? M.? Finn? E.J. (1968). Fundamental University Physics Volume III: Quantum and Statistical Physics . ??????-????? ^[??????????].
^ Electromagnetic radiation is made of photons ???? ?????? 2013-04-03 ?? Wayback Machine
^ David Mermin (?????? 1984). "Relativity without light". American Journal of Physics . 52(2): 119?124.

?? ????? ??? ?????? ??: ?????

[14] ????? ??? ???? "??? ????? ?? ???? ?????" ???? ??? ????? ????? ??? 10 ¹³ W/cm ² ?????? ????? ???? ????? ???? ????? ??????? ?????????. ?????? ???????? ?? ????? ?????? ????? ???? ????? ?????? ?????? ??? 10 ¹⁴ W/cm ²? ????? ????? ????????? ?????? ?? ?????? ???????? ?????? ???????????? ???? ???? ?????? ??????? . ???? ????? ^[1]. ?????????? ??? ??? ????? ??? ??? 0.1 W/cm ². ???? ?????? 2017-10-11 ?? Wayback Machine

[27] ????? ????? ??????? ?????? ????????? ?? ???? ??????? ????? ?? ???? ?? ??? ????? ????? ????? ?? ???? ?????. ???? 86% ?? ???? ????? ?????? ??????. ????? ??? ???? ??????? ??????? ?? ?????? ???: ?????? ???????? ? ??? ???? ??????? ????? ???? ?????. ??????? ??????? ? ??? ???? ??????? ????? ????? ??? ????? ???? ?????.

[Particle_table_2009-1] ? ^? ^? ^? Amsler, C. et al. ( Particle Data Group ) (2008 +2009 partial update). "Review of Particle Physics: Gauge and Higgs bosons" (PDF) . Physics Letters B . ?. 667: 1. Bibcode : 2008PhLB..667....1P . DOI : 10.1016/j.physletb.2008.07.018 . ????? ?? ????? (PDF) ?? 28 ????? 2018. {{ ??????? ?????? ????? }}: ???? ?? ??????? ??: |???= ( ?????? )

[Particle_table-2] Official particle table for gauge and Higgs bosons Retrieved 24 October 2006 ???? ?????? 2016-12-28 ?? Wayback Machine

[DIC-3] ? ^? ??? ??????? ????? ??????? ???? ?????? ???? ?????? (2016)? ???? ??????? ??????? ?????????? ???????????? ?????????? (???????? ???????????)? ????: ???? ????? ??????? ????? ? ?. 143? QID : Q108405620

[4] ???? ???? ?? (2017). ??????? ?????? ?????? (???????? ???????????) (?. 1). ?????: ??? ????? ??????? . ?. 353. ISBN : 978-2-7451-3066-2 . OCLC : 1229995179 . QID : Q124425203 .

[Rashed-5] Rashed? R. (2007). "The Celestial Kinematics of Ibn al-Haytham". Arabic Sciences and Philosophy . ????? ????? ???????? . ?. 17 ?. 1: 7?55 [19]. DOI : 10.1017/S0957423907000355 . ?? ????? ???????? ???? ????? ?? ????? ? ??? ??????? ????? ??? ?????? ???? ??????? ???? ???????? ????????? ??????? ???? ????????.

[6] Descartes? R. (1637). Discours de la methode ( ???? ?? ?????? ) . Imprimerie de Ian Maire . (?????????)

[7] Hooke? R. (1667). Micrographia: or some physiological descriptions of minute bodies made by magnifying [[?????]] with observations and inquiries thereupon... London (UK): ??????? ??????? . ????? ?? ????? ?? 2008-12-02. {{ ??????? ????? }}: ????? ???? ?? ???? ( ?????? )

[8] Huygens? C. (1678). Traite de la lumiere . (?????????) . An ????? ???????? ??????? ?? ????? ???????

[Newton1730-9] Newton? I. (1952) [1730]. Opticks (?. 4th). Dover (NY): Dover Publications . Book II, Part III, Propositions XII?XX, Queries 25?29. {{ ??????? ????? }}: ?????? ??? ??????? |nopp= ?? ?????? ????? ??????? |no-pp= ( ?????? )

[10] Buchwald? J.Z. (1989). The Rise of the Wave Theory of Light: Optical Theory and Experiment in the Early Nineteenth Century . ??? ??? ????? ?????? . OCLC : 18069573 .

[maxwell-11] Maxwell? J.C. (1865). " A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field ". ????????? ???????? ??????? ??????? . ?. 155: 459?512. DOI : 10.1098/rstl.1865.0008 . ??? ??? ?????? ????? ???????? ?? ??????? ?? 8 ?????? 1864 ??????? ???????.

[hertz-12] Hertz? H. (1888). "Uber Strahlen elektrischer Kraft". Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Berlin) . ?. 1888: 1297?1307. (??????????)

[13] ?????? ?????? ??????? ?. 276f., ??????? ?????????? ??? 1.4 ?? Alonso? M.? Finn? E.J. (1968). Fundamental University Physics Volume III: Quantum and Statistical Physics . ??????-????? ^[??????????].

[Einstein1905-15] Einstein? A. (1905). "Uber einen die Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes betreffenden heuristischen Gesichtspunkt" . Annalen der Physik . ?. 17: 132?148. DOI : 10.1002/andp.19053220607 . ????? ?? ????? ?? 2022-05-28. (??????????) . A partial English translation is available from ???? ???? .

[Lewis1926-16] Lewis? G.N. (1926). "The conservation of photons". ????? (????) . ?. 118: 874?875. DOI : 10.1038/118874a0 .

[17] Asimov? I. (1966). The Neutrino, Ghost Particle of the Atom . Garden City (NY): ??????? . LCCN 660-3 .

[18] Asimov? I. (1966). The Universe From Flat Earth To Quasar . New York (NY): Walker . LCCN 660-5 .

[19] Villard? P. (1900). "Sur la reflexion et la refraction des rayons cathodiques et des rayons deviables du radium". Comptes Rendus des Seances de l'Academie des Sciences (Paris) . ?. 130: 1010?1012. (?????????)

[20] Villard? P. (1900). "Sur le rayonnement du radium". Comptes Rendus des Seances de l'Academie des Sciences (Paris) . ?. 130: 1178?1179. (?????????)

[21] Rutherford? E. (1914). "The Wavelength of the Soft Gamma Rays from Radium B". Philosophical Magazine . ?. 27: 854?868. {{ ??????? ?????? ????? }}: ?????? author-name-list parameters ???? ???? ?? ??? ( ?????? )

[chargeless-22] Kobychev? V.V. (2005). "Constraints on the photon charge from observations of extragalactic sources". Astronomy Letters . ?. 31: 147?151. DOI : 10.1134/1.1883345 . {{ ??????? ?????? ????? }}: ?????? author-name-list parameters ???? ???? ?? ??? ( ?????? )

[23] Role as gauge boson and polarization section 5.1 in Aitchison? I.J.R.? Hey? A.J.G. (1993). Gauge Theories in Particle Physics . IOP Publishing .

[24] See p.31 in Amsler? C. (2008). "Review of Particle Physics". Physics Letters . ?. B667: 1?1340. {{ ??????? ?????? ????? }}: ?????? author-name-list parameters ???? ???? ?? ??? ( ?????? ) .

[25] See section 1.6 in Alonso? M.? Finn? E.J. (1968). Fundamental University Physics Volume III: Quantum and Statistical Physics . ??????-????? ^[??????????].

[26] Electromagnetic radiation is made of photons ???? ?????? 2013-04-03 ?? Wayback Machine

[28] David Mermin (?????? 1984). "Relativity without light". American Journal of Physics . 52(2): 119?124.

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? ? ? ???????????? ????
???	?????????? ?????-????????? ???? ??????? Gupta?Bleuler formalism ???? ????? ??????
??????	????? ????? ??????? ??? ??????-????? ????? ???????? ?????????? ?????? ????????
??????	??? ???????? ??? Furry's theorem Klein?Nishina formula Landau pole QED vacuum Schwinger limit Uehling potential Vacuum polarization Vertex function Ward?Takahashi identity
??????	Bhabha scattering Breit?Wheeler process ???? ?????? ???? ??????? Delbruck scattering ?????? ???? Møller scattering ????? ?????? Photon-photon scattering

????????? ??????	???? ????? ???????? ?????? (MeSH) : D017785
???????? ????????	???? ????? ?????? ??????? (UMLS CUI) : C0086805 ??????? ???????? ??????? ?? ??????? (BNCF) : 19366 ????? (JSTOR) : photons