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??? ??????? ?? ???? ??????? ?? ???? ???? ??? ????? ??????? ?????? ^[1] ??????? ??? ?????? ????????. ?? ?? ??? ?? ???????? ????? ??? ??????? ?????? ????????? ?? ?????? ????????? ?????? ???? ???? ?? ???????? ?? ????? ?????? ? ?? ??? ????? ????? ??????? ?? ????? ??????? . ???? ??????? ????? ?????? ??? ??????? ???? ???? ??????? ?? ???????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ? ??? ????? ???? ??????? ?????? ????? ??? ?? ????????? ????????? ?? ??????? ???? ??? ??? ???? ??? ?? ??????? ????????? ??????? ?? ???? ??????? ?????? ??? ????? ?? ?????? ?????????. ?? ??? ??? ???????? ???? ????? ??????? ??? ???? ????? ?? ????? ?????? ??? ????? ???????? ≪ ?????? ???? ?? ??? ≫. ^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5]^[6]^[7] ?? ????? ????? ?? ??? ?? ??? ??? ????? ????? ?????? ??????????? ???? ??????? ??????? ?????? ????? ??????? ???? ????????? ??? ??????? ??????? ?? ???????? ???? ??????? ?? ???????? ?? ????? ?????? ??? ??????? ?????????. ^[8]^[9]^[10]^[11]^[12] ???? ?????? ?? ???? ?? ???? ? ???????? ??????? ? ????????? ? ??? ??????? ?????????? ??????? ??? ?? ???? ???? ??????? ????? ???? ??????? ??????? ???? ??? ???? ????? ??? ????? ??? ?????????? ???? ????? ??? ????? ????? ???? ?????? ?? ?????? ?????????? ?????? ??? ??????? ????????? ?????? ???? ?????? ??? ?????? ?????? ??????? ?????????.

????? ??????? ??? ????? ???? ??????? ???? ???? ????? ????????? ??? ??? ???? ???????. ??? ????? ??????? ????? ????? ?????? ???????? ??? ?? ??????? ????? ?????? ????? ??????? ≪?????? ???? ?? ???≫.

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?? ??? ??? ???????? ? ???? ????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ????? ??????? ??? ?????? ???? ????????? ???? ???? ?????? ?? ??????? ?????? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?? ??????? ????? ??? ??????? ??????? ????? ??? ?????? ????????? ????????? ?? ?????? ?????????. ?? ??????? ???????? ??????? ??? ???? ???????? ? ??? ??? ???? ?? ??????????? ?????????? ??????? ??? ????? ????????? ?????? ?? ??? ????? ?? ??? ????????? ? ????? ??? ????????? ???????? ?????? ??? ???????? ????????? ? ??? ?????? ????? ???????? ?? ??????? ??????? ?? ??????? ??????? ???? ?? ???? ???? ?? ??? ????????? ???? ?????? ???? . ????? ??? ??????? ??????? ????? ????? ???????? ??? ????? ????? ???? ???????? ?????? ???????. ??? ????? ?????? ???? ????? ??? ???? ??????? ??????? ????? ???????.

???? ???? ???? ???? ??????? ?????? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ??????? ?? ?????? ??????? ???????: ????? ?????? ????? ??? ?????? ?? ????? ? ????????? ????????? / ?????? ????? ??? ?????? ?? ???????? ? ?????? ???????? ????? ????? ?????????? ?? ???????? ??????? ? ???? ????????? ????? ??? ?????? ?? ??????? ??????? .

???? ???? ????? ???? ?? ??? ??????? ?????? ??????? ???? ????? ????? ?? ??? ?????. ^[13]

?? ??? ????????? ?? ????? ??? ??????? ???? ??????? ??? ????? ???? ?????? ????? ??????? . ??? ???? ??????? ????? ?????? ???????? ???? ???? ?? ????? (?????? ???????? ????????? / ?????? ?????? ????? ?????? ??? ??????? ?????? ????? ??? ??????? ???? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ??? ??? ??????) ??????? ??? ???? ?????? ????????? ? ???? ?????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ??? ???????? ???????? ???????? . ??? ???? ???? ??????? ??????? ???? ?????? ?? ???? ?????? ????????? ? ???? ?????? ???? ????? ?????? ???? ??????? ?? ??????? ???????.

????? ?? ???? ???? ??????? ???????? ??? ??????? ????????? ??? ????????? ?????? ??? ???????? ?????????? ? ????????? ? ????? ? ????????? ? ???????? ??? ????????? ?????? ??? ??? ???????? ? ??????????? ????????? ? ????? ????? ? ?????? ????? . ??? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ?? ????????? ???? ???? ????? ?????? ????? ?????? ???? ??????? ????? ?? ???????. ???? ??????? ???????? ?????????? (??? ??????? ????? ??? ????? ?????????? ?????? ???? ????????? ???????? ??????????)? ??????? (??? ??? ?????? ?????????? ?????? ???? ????????? ??????)? ??????????? (??? ??? ???????????? ?????? ?????????? ??????)? ???? ???????? (??? ??????????? ?????????? ?????????)? ?????? ?????? ?????? (??? ??????????? ?????????? ????????? ).

????? ????? ??????? ??????????? ?? ????? ???????? ??? ????? ?????? ????? ?? ??? ?? ???? ?????? ??????? ??????? ?? ???????? ??????. ???? ????? ??????? ??? ??? ????? ?????? ???? ?????? ????????? ? ?????? ????? ??? ????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ?? ?????? ??? ?? ?????? ????? ???? ?? ??????? ???????. ???? ????? ???????? ??????? ??? ?????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ?????? ???? ??? ????? ?????????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ????????? ??? ????? ????????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ??? ??? ?????? ?????????? ???? ???? ???????.

???? ????? ???????? ?????? ????? ????? ??? ??????? ?????? ???????? ?????????? - ?????? ??????? ???? ???? ????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ???? ??????? ?????????? - ?????????? .

????? [ ??? ]

???? ????? ?????? ????? ??????? ?????? ???? ????? ?? ????? ???? ??????? ?? ???? (?? ?? ???) ^[14] ???????? ??????? ?????? (?? ??? ???) ^[15] ???????? ?????????. ?? ????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ?????????? ?????? ?????? ???? ????? ??????? ?? ??? ??????? ?? ????? ????? ??????. ????? ????? ????? ???? ??? ??????? ?? ≪?? ?? ???≫ ?? ≪?? ??? ???≫? ^[16] ?????? ???? ??? 20% ??????? ?? ????? ??? 2009 ?? ??? ?????? ??? ?????? ?????? ??? 28% ?? ?????????? ?????? 2014 .

?????? ????????? [ ??? ]

???? ???? ??? ?????? ????????? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ???? ?????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ?? ????? ≪?????? ???? ?? ???≫. ????? ??? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ???????? ???? ?? ?? ????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ?? ??? ??? ??????? ????????? ????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ????? ???????. ^[17]

????? [ ??? ]

^ Note: in the politics of Australia, for example, technically there are not two political parties but rather "two major political groupings"; for further information, see Coalition (Australia)
^ Schmidt, Steffen W.? Shelley, Mack C.? Bardes, Barbara A (2008). "American Government and Politics Today 2008?2009" . Wadsworth Publishing Company. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2020-02-29 . ???? ???? ?????? 2010-11-22 .
^ Wong Chin Huat, fz.com, Jul 29, 2013, When winner takes all ???? ?????? 2013-08-01 ??? ???? ??? ??? ???? ., Accessed Aug 12, 2013, "...This "winner-takes-all" characteristic of political contestation then forces political groups to consolidate into two blocs, hence, the two-party system..."
^ Regis Publishing, The US System: Winner Takes All , ^{[
???? ??????
]} Accessed Aug. 12, 2013, "...Winner-take-all rules trigger a cycle that leads to and strengthens a system of few (two in the US) political parties..." ( in Wayback Machine ) ???? ?????? 8 ????? 2020 ??? ???? ??? ??? ???? .
^ The Two Party System, Boundless Publishing, Two-party systems are prominent in various countries, such as the U.S., and contain both advantages and disadvantages ???? ?????? 2013-10-03 ??? ???? ??? ??? ???? ., Accessed August 12, 2013 "...There are two main reasons winner-takes-all systems lead to a two-party system...", ^{[
???? ??????
]}
^ Eric Black, Minnpost, October 8, 2012, Why the same two parties dominate our two-party system , Accessed Aug. 12, 2013, "...SMDP (single-member districts, plurality) voting system. ... This forces those who might favor a minor party candidate to either vote for whichever of the two biggest parties the voter dislikes the least, or to risk the likelihood that their vote will be "wasted" or, worse, that they will end up helping the major-party candidate whom the voter dislikes the most to win. Minor parties aren’t banned, but they seldom produce a plurality winner, and their lack of success often causes the minor parties to wither and die...." ???? ?????? 2020-05-02 ??? ???? ??? ??? ???? .
^ History Learning Site, Why America is a two-party state , Accessed Aug. 12, 2013, "...The American electoral system ? winner-takes-all ? guarantees that any third, fourth party etc has no chance of winning...." "???? ??????" . ????? ?? ????? ?? 2015-06-08 . ???? ???? ?????? 2020-06-08 . {{ ??????? ??? }}: ????? ?????????: BOT: original URL status unknown ( link )
^ Patrick Bashan, CATO Institute, June 9, 2004, Do Electoral Systems Affect Government Size? , Accessed Aug. 12, 2013, "...The current system has many disadvantages, most notably its propensity to discriminate against minor parties operating outside the increasingly uncompetitive, cozy two-party system.... America’s winner-takes-all electoral system may be the least bad option for those seeking to limit government involvement in the nation’s economic life...." ???? ?????? 2020-03-10 ??? ???? ??? ??? ???? .
^ George F. Will, October 12, 2006, Washington Post, From Schwarzenegger, a Veto for Voters' Good , Accessed Aug. 12, 2013, "...That electoral vote system (combined with the winner-take-all allocation of votes in all states but Maine and Nebraska) makes it very difficult for third-party presidential candidates to be competitive..." ???? ?????? 2017-05-20 ??? ???? ??? ??? ???? .
^ Ashley Ford, Sept. 17, 2012, Cavalier Daily, Party of three: A third political party is an important aspect of the Virginia democratic process , Accessed Aug. 12, 2013, "...The two party system forces the third party to join their group in a winner take all system..." ???? ?????? 2020-03-23 ??? ???? ??? ??? ???? .
^ Two Party System, PBS, Two-Party System , Accessed Aug. 12, 2013, "...Third-party or independent candidates face a slew of obstacles in American politics, from limited media coverage to legal barriers and Congressional leadership rules. Laws regarding third-party candidates also vary from state to state, presenting additional difficulties...." ???? ?????? 2019-11-17 ??? ???? ??? ??? ???? .
^ Chris Cillizza and Aaron Blake, May 18, 2012, The Washington Post, Americans Elect and the death of the third party movement , Accessed Aug 11, 2013 ???? ?????? 2020-02-25 ??? ???? ??? ??? ???? .
^ Disch? Lisa Jane (2002). The Tyranny of the Two-Party System . ISBN : 978-0231110358 . ????? ?? ????? ?? 2020-06-08 . ???? ???? ?????? 2012-10-29 – ??? Google Books.
^ "National Democratic Alliance (NDA)" . electionaffairs.com. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2016-05-30.
^ "United Progressive Alliance (UPA)" . electionaffairs.com. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2012-02-05.
^ "Political Parties in India" . electionaffairs.com. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2015-07-07 . ???? ???? ?????? 2012-08-07 .
^ Coppedge? Michael. "The Dynamic Diversity of Latin American Party Systems". Kellogg Institute, Hesburgh Center .

??? ??????? ?? ???????? ??????? :

??? ?????? ????? ?? ?????.

????? ???????

[1] Note: in the politics of Australia, for example, technically there are not two political parties but rather "two major political groupings"; for further information, see Coalition (Australia)

[SchmidtTextbook-2] Schmidt, Steffen W.? Shelley, Mack C.? Bardes, Barbara A (2008). "American Government and Politics Today 2008?2009" . Wadsworth Publishing Company. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2020-02-29 . ???? ???? ?????? 2010-11-22 .

[3] Wong Chin Huat, fz.com, Jul 29, 2013, When winner takes all ???? ?????? 2013-08-01 ??? ???? ??? ??? ???? ., Accessed Aug 12, 2013, "...This "winner-takes-all" characteristic of political contestation then forces political groups to consolidate into two blocs, hence, the two-party system..."

[Regis-4] Regis Publishing, The US System: Winner Takes All , ^{[
???? ??????
]} Accessed Aug. 12, 2013, "...Winner-take-all rules trigger a cycle that leads to and strengthens a system of few (two in the US) political parties..." ( in Wayback Machine ) ???? ?????? 8 ????? 2020 ??? ???? ??? ??? ???? .

[Boundless-5] The Two Party System, Boundless Publishing, Two-party systems are prominent in various countries, such as the U.S., and contain both advantages and disadvantages ???? ?????? 2013-10-03 ??? ???? ??? ??? ???? ., Accessed August 12, 2013 "...There are two main reasons winner-takes-all systems lead to a two-party system...", ^{[
???? ??????
]}

[EricBlack-6] Eric Black, Minnpost, October 8, 2012, Why the same two parties dominate our two-party system , Accessed Aug. 12, 2013, "...SMDP (single-member districts, plurality) voting system. ... This forces those who might favor a minor party candidate to either vote for whichever of the two biggest parties the voter dislikes the least, or to risk the likelihood that their vote will be "wasted" or, worse, that they will end up helping the major-party candidate whom the voter dislikes the most to win. Minor parties aren’t banned, but they seldom produce a plurality winner, and their lack of success often causes the minor parties to wither and die...." ???? ?????? 2020-05-02 ??? ???? ??? ??? ???? .

[7] History Learning Site, Why America is a two-party state , Accessed Aug. 12, 2013, "...The American electoral system ? winner-takes-all ? guarantees that any third, fourth party etc has no chance of winning...." "???? ??????" . ????? ?? ????? ?? 2015-06-08 . ???? ???? ?????? 2020-06-08 . {{ ??????? ??? }}: ????? ?????????: BOT: original URL status unknown ( link )

[Cato-8] Patrick Bashan, CATO Institute, June 9, 2004, Do Electoral Systems Affect Government Size? , Accessed Aug. 12, 2013, "...The current system has many disadvantages, most notably its propensity to discriminate against minor parties operating outside the increasingly uncompetitive, cozy two-party system.... America’s winner-takes-all electoral system may be the least bad option for those seeking to limit government involvement in the nation’s economic life...." ???? ?????? 2020-03-10 ??? ???? ??? ??? ???? .

[9] George F. Will, October 12, 2006, Washington Post, From Schwarzenegger, a Veto for Voters' Good , Accessed Aug. 12, 2013, "...That electoral vote system (combined with the winner-take-all allocation of votes in all states but Maine and Nebraska) makes it very difficult for third-party presidential candidates to be competitive..." ???? ?????? 2017-05-20 ??? ???? ??? ??? ???? .

[10] Ashley Ford, Sept. 17, 2012, Cavalier Daily, Party of three: A third political party is an important aspect of the Virginia democratic process , Accessed Aug. 12, 2013, "...The two party system forces the third party to join their group in a winner take all system..." ???? ?????? 2020-03-23 ??? ???? ??? ??? ???? .

[PBS-11] Two Party System, PBS, Two-Party System , Accessed Aug. 12, 2013, "...Third-party or independent candidates face a slew of obstacles in American politics, from limited media coverage to legal barriers and Congressional leadership rules. Laws regarding third-party candidates also vary from state to state, presenting additional difficulties...." ???? ?????? 2019-11-17 ??? ???? ??? ??? ???? .

[Cillizza2-12] Chris Cillizza and Aaron Blake, May 18, 2012, The Washington Post, Americans Elect and the death of the third party movement , Accessed Aug 11, 2013 ???? ?????? 2020-02-25 ??? ???? ??? ??? ???? .

[13] Disch? Lisa Jane (2002). The Tyranny of the Two-Party System . ISBN : 978-0231110358 . ????? ?? ????? ?? 2020-06-08 . ???? ???? ?????? 2012-10-29 – ??? Google Books.

[National_Democratic_Alliance_(NDA)-14] "National Democratic Alliance (NDA)" . electionaffairs.com. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2016-05-30.

[United_Progressive_Alliance_(UPA)-15] "United Progressive Alliance (UPA)" . electionaffairs.com. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2012-02-05.

[Political_Parties_in_India-16] "Political Parties in India" . electionaffairs.com. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2015-07-07 . ???? ???? ?????? 2012-08-07 .

[17] Coppedge? Michael. "The Dynamic Diversity of Latin American Party Systems". Kellogg Institute, Hesburgh Center .

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