???? ?????

?????? ??????? ?? ??????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ?? ??????? ^[1] ?? ??????? ???????? ??????? ??? ???? ???????? . ^[2] ????? ??????? ???? ???? ??? ???? ?????? ?? ??????? ???????? ????????? ???? ???? ???? ??? ???? ?????? ????? ???????. ??? ???? ??????? ????? ????? ??? ????? ?????? ?? ???????.

???? ??????? ???? ?? ?????? ??? ??????? ?????? ???? ???? ???????? ??? ????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ????? ???????? ?????????? ?????????? ?? ??? ??? ??? ???? ????? ?? ???????? ??? ??? ≪???????? ??????? ??????? ????????? ???? ???? ????? ???????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ?? ??????? ?? ????? ???? ?????? ?????????.≫ ^[3]

???? ????? ????? ?? ??????? ????????? ??? ?????? ??????? ???? ????? ??????? ????????? ???????? ??? ????? ???????? ???????? ?? ???????? ???????? ??? ??????? ?????????? ????????? ??? ??????? ??????????? ? ???? ???? ??????? ???? ????? ?????? ??? ??? ?????? ????? ??? ??????? . ^[4] ??? ????? ???????? ? ??? ??? ??????? ???? ??? ??????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ???? ?????? ???????? ?????? ???????? ????????. ^[5] ??????? ?????? ??? ?????? ??????? ?? ?? ??? ???? ?????? ???????? ?? ?? ??? ?????? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ??????? ????? ????? ?? ???????? ?? ???? -?? ??? ???? ?????? ????- ???? ??? ????? ????? ??????? ??????????.

????? ??????? [ ??? ]

????? ?????? ??? ???? ?????? ??? ???????? ? ^[6] ??????????? ????? ?????? ??????? ??????????? (infrastructure) ??? ??? 1927 ??? ?????? ???? ??? ??????? ?? ????? ???? ≪??????? ???? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ?? ?????≫. ^[7]

????? ????? ????? ??? ????? ???????? ????????? ???? ???? ?????? ??? ??????????? ??????? ????? ???? ???? ?? ??????? ??? ?????? ??????? . ??? ???????? ??? ?????? ?? ????? ???????? ? ??? ???? ???? ??????? ???????? ? ????? ???? ?????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ??? ??????? ?? ????? ???????? ???? ???????. ??????? ????? ?? ??????? ?????? ?? ????? ?????? ????????? ??? "infra"? ????? ???? ≪???≫? ????? "structure". ??? ??? ??? ????????? ??????? ???? ??????? ?? ???????? ??????? ??? ????? ??? ?????? ?? ??????????? ?? ????? ???????? ? ??????????? ????? ?? ???? ???????? ?????????? ????? ??????? ???????? ???? ??????? ?? ???? ??? 1970. ^[8]

??? ????? ??? ??????? ?? ???????? ??????? ?????? ????? ?? ?????? ?? ??????????? ?? ????? ???????? ??? ??? ???? ?????? ?? ??????? ? ^[9] ???? ???? ?????? ??? ??????? ?????? ≪????? ?????? ???????≫ ?? ??????? ??????? ?? ????? ??? ?? ???? ?? ??????????? ??? ??????? ???????? ??? ?????? ??????? ??????. ??? ???? ?????? ??? ??? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ???? ?????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ?? ???????? ???????.

??????? [ ??? ]

???? ???? ????? ????? ??????? ??????? ?? ???????? ??????? ???? 1987 ????? ≪?????? ??????? ??????? ??????≫ ????? ???:

≪... ?? ?? ??????? ???????? ??????? - ????? ???????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ????? ?????? ???????? ???????? ????? ???? ?????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ????? ????? ?????? ?????????? ??????? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ???????? ??????? ? ??????? ???? ????? ??? ??????? ??????. ?? ???? ??? ?????? ??????? ????? ??????? ?????? ??? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ???? ?????? ???? ?? ????? ????????? ??????? ????????? ?????? ??? ??????? ????????? ???????? ??? ?????? ????? ???? ????????? ????? ??????? ????? ?? ???????? ???? ?????? ???????? ???????? ??? ?????? ??? ?????? ???? ????????? ??? ????????? ??????. ^[10]

???? ??????? ????????? ????????? ???????? ≪????? ????? ???? ?????≫ ???? ??? ??????? ???? ??? ??? ????? ?????? ?? 2-4 ?????. ?? 2017 ?????? 16 ?????? ??? ???????? ???????? ???????? ????? ?????? ???????? ????????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ????????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ??????????? ????????? ??????? ??????? ????????? ????????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ????? ?????. ???? ???????? ??????? ???? ≪?+≫ ??????? ???????. ??? ?????? ??????? ????????? ????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ??? ??????. ?? ???? ???????? ??????? -??? ?? ?????- ?????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ???? ?? ???? ????????? ????????? ?? ?????????? ???????? ?? ??? ??????? ??????? ????????. ^[11]

??????? [ ??? ]

?????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ???? ???????? ??? ??? ????. ???? ???????? ?????????? ??? ????? ?????? ????: ≪??????? ??????? ??? ???????? ???? ??????? ??????? ?????????? ?? ????? ????? ??≫. ??? ?????? ??????? ??????? ????? ???? ??? ??????? ???????????. ???? ?? ??? ???? ????? ??????: ???? ??????? ??????????? ?? ??????? ?????????? (????????? ?????? ??? ?????? ?????????? ???.)? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ????? (??????? ??????? ??? ????? ?????? ???????)? ?????? ?????????? ?????? ??????? ???????. ???? ?????? ???? ?????? ??????? ??????? ??? ??????? ??? ?????? ??????? ?? ????? ????????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?????????. ^[12]

???????? [ ??? ]

????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ?? ????? ≪??????? ?????????≫. ????? ?????????? ??????? ??? ?????? ??????? ???????? ?? ????? ??????? ?????????? ??????????. ????? ?? ???? ????? ????? ?????????. ????? ??? ???? ???????? ??????? ???????? ?????????? ????????? ????? ?????? ???? ???? ??? ??????? ??????????? ?? ?????? ????? ?????????? ??????? ???????? ?? ???????.

????????? [ ??? ]

???? ?????? ??????? ????????? ??? ?????? ??????? ??????? ???? ???? ???? ???????? ?????? ??????? ??????????? ???????????. ????? ??? ????? ??? ????? ?? ????? ?????????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ????????. ???? ?? ???? ????? ??? ????? ?? ??????? ?????? ???? ???? ???????? ????? ?? ???? ??? ??? ?????.

??????? [ ??? ]

???? ?????? ??????? ??????? ????? ≪??? ??????? ?????????? ??? ???????? ???? ????????? ???? ????? ???? ????? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ????????? ?????????? ??????????? ???????? ??????? ???????????≫. ???? ????? ????????? ????? ??????? ???????: 1) ????? ??????? ?????????? 2) ??????? ?????. ?????? ?????? ?????? ?? ??????? ???????? ?????? ???????. ?????? ??????? ??? ???? ????? ?????? ????? ???????. ?????? ???? ??? ???? ???? ????????? ????? ????? ???????. ?????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ????? ?????? ?????? ??????????? ??????? ???????. ^[13]

?????????? [ ??? ]

????? ?????? ???????? ???? ????? ?????? ??????? ?????????? ?????: ≪??????? ???????? ???? ???? ???? ?????? ??????? ??????? ??????????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ????????? ??????? ????????? ?????? ????? ??????≫. ???? ?????? ??????? ?????????? ???????? ??????? ?????????? ?????????. ???? ???? ????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ????????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ...???.

?????????? [ ??? ]

???? ????? ?????? ??????? ?????????? ???? ??? ????? ???? ??????? ???? ???? ??????? ?????????? ????????. ???? ?????? ??????? ?????????? ?????? ?????? ?????????? ?????? ?????? ?????????. ??? ????? ?? ??????? ???????? ???????? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?? ???????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ...???. ^[14]

???????? [ ??? ]

???? ?????? ???????? ????? ?????? ??? ??? ???? ????????. ????? ?????????? ???????? ?? ?????? ??????? ???????? ??? ??? ????? ??????: ?????? ?????? ????? ????????? ??????? ??????? ?? ??????? ??????? ????????? ??? ??? ????. ???? ?????? ??????? ???????? ??? ?? ??????? ???????? ????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ????? ??????? ?????? ????? ...???. ^[15]

???????? [ ??? ]

???? ?????? ??????? ???????? ??? ????? ???????? ?????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ????????? ????????? ??????????????? ??????? ???????. ???????? ???????. ????? ?? ??????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ???? ????? ?? ?????? ??????? (???????? ?????? ???????? ???). ^[16]

??????? [ ??? ]

???? ?????? ??????? ??????? ??? ????? ?????? ???????? ???????? ???? ??????? ?????? ?????/????????/??????? ???. ?????? ??? ???? ?????? ?? ?????? ??? ??????. ??? ??? ?????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ?? ??????? ??????? ?? ???? ??????? ???? ???? ?????? ???? ????? ???????. ???? ?????? ????? ????? ??????? ??????? ????? ????????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ????? ???? ??????? ??? ?? ????? ?? ???? ???????. ?? ??????? ?????? ????? ??????? ????????? ??? ???????? ???????? ???????? ?????? ????? ??????? ???.

?????? ??? ??? [ ??? ]

????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ????? ?????? ?? ??? ???????? ?????? ???????? ???? ?? ???? ???? ?????? ??????? ???? ?????? ??? ??? ??????? ???? ?????? ?? ??????? ??? ???????? ?? ?????? ???????? ?????? ????? ??????? ????? ???? ?? ?????? ???????? ?????? ????? ????? ?? ??? ??????? ????????. ?????? ???? ???? ???? ???? ????? ?? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ???????? ???? ????? ???? ?????? ??? ???????? ??????? ????? ??????? ???????? ???? ??? ?????. ????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ????? ????? ??????? ?????? ???? ??? ?????. ^[17]

???? ????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ??? ??????? ??????? ???????? ????????. ???? ??????? ?????? ???? ??? ??? ???? ????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??????. ???? ??????? ?????? ???? ?? ????? ??????? ???????? ???? ?????? ??????? ???? ???.

??????? ???????? [ ??? ]

?? ???? ????? ??????? ????? ?? ??? ?????? ?? ????? ???? ???????? ?????? ??????? ?? ????? ????? ????????. ???? ???? ??? ???? ?????? ????????? ??????? ???????? ?? ??????? ??????? ?????? ????? ??????? ?????? ????? ????? ???? ??????? ??????? ????? ???? ????? ??????? ?? ??? ??????? ???? ?????? ????. ???? ?? ???? ?????? ????? ??????? ??? ??????? ?????? ?? ???????? ?? ???????? ?? ?? ???? ???? ?? ??????????? ????? ???? ?????? ????? ??????? ??? ??????? ?????? ???? ??? ?? ???? ??????????. ???? ???? ?????? ????????? ???? ??? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ?????.

???? ????? ?????? ????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ?? ??? ?????? ????? ?? ??? ?????? ???? ???? ??????? ???????? ??? ??????? ??? ?? ?????? ?????. ??? 2008 ?? ???????? ??????? ??? ???? ??????? ????? ????? ????? ??? ????? ??????? ??? 2.3% ?? ?????? ?????? ???????? ?3.6% ??? ??? 1950. ?????? ?????? ?? ???????? ??????? ?? ????? ???????.

????? [ ??? ]

??? ???? ??? ?????? ??? ???? ?????? ? ?? ??? ??????? ??????? ? ?? ???? ?????? .

???? ????? [ ??? ]

????? [ ??? ]

^ Infrastructure , Online Compact Oxford English Dictionary, http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/infrastructure (accessed January 17, 2009) ???? ?????? 2020-11-01 ?? Wayback Machine
^ Sullivan? arthur (2003). Economics: Principles in action . Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458: Pearson Prentice Hall. ?. 474. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2019-12-14. {{ ??????? ????? }}: ?????? author-name-list parameters ???? ???? ?? ??? ( ?????? ) ????? ?????????: ???? ( link )
^ Fulmer? Jeffrey (2009). "What in the world is infrastructure?". PEI Infrastructure Investor ?. July/August: 30?32.
^ Infrastructure , American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/entry/infrastructure (accessed January 17, 2009) ???? ?????? 2020-11-02 ?? Wayback Machine
^ Infrastructure , JP1-02, Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms, p. 260, 12 April 2001 (rev. 31 August 2005) http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA439918&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf(accessed January 17, 2009) ???? ?????? 2020-11-18 ?? Wayback Machine
^ Online Etymology Dictionary. Douglas Harper, Historian. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/infrastructure (accessed: April 24, 2008) ???? ?????? 2016-03-05 ?? Wayback Machine
^ "Soft Infrastructure - Definition" . ????? ?? ????? ?? 2011-07-23.
^ The Etymology of Infrastructure and the Infrastructure of the Internet , Stephen Lewis on his blog Hag Pak Sak , posted September 22, 2008. [1] (accessed: January 17, 2008) ???? ?????? 2018-01-02 ?? Wayback Machine
^ America in Ruins , Choate and Walter, 1981 ???? ?????? 2017-01-01 ?? Wayback Machine
^ Dahms, L., National Council on ????? ???? Improvement (U.S.)., National Research Council (U.S.). Committee on Infrastructure Innovation. (1987). Infrastructure for the 21st century: framework for a research agenda. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
^ Cervero, Robert (2 Dec 2014). "Transport Infrastructure and the Environment in the Global South: Sustainable Mobility and Urbanism" . Journal of Regional and City Planning (???????????). 25 (3): 174?191. DOI : 10.5614/jpwk.2015.25.3.1 . ISSN : 2502-6429 . Archived from the original on 2021-05-11.
^ Torrisi? Gianpiero (????? 2009). "Public infrastructure: definition, classification and measurement issues" (PDF) . ????? ?? ????? (PDF) ?? 2021-10-22.
^ "Infrastructure Materials Engineering - Department of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering" . www.caee.utexas.edu . ????? ?? ????? ?? 2021-02-28 . ???? ???? ?????? 2020-11-05 .
^ Cohen, Gershon (20 Jul 2017). "What is social infrastructure?" . Aberdeen Standard Investments (???????????). Archived from the original on 2021-04-26.
^ Pease? Bob (28 ?????? 2014). "Infrastructure Investment Opportunities for Public Safety Plans" (PDF) . ????? ?? ????? (PDF) ?? 2021-04-20.
^ "what does complementary asset mean" . ????? ?? ????? ?? 2018-01-17.
^ Association of Local Government Engineers New Zealand: "Infrastructure Asset Management Manual", June 1998. Edition 1.1

?? ????? ??? ?????? ??: ???? ?????

[1] Infrastructure , Online Compact Oxford English Dictionary, http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/infrastructure (accessed January 17, 2009) ???? ?????? 2020-11-01 ?? Wayback Machine

[2] Sullivan? arthur (2003). Economics: Principles in action . Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458: Pearson Prentice Hall. ?. 474. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2019-12-14. {{ ??????? ????? }}: ?????? author-name-list parameters ???? ???? ?? ??? ( ?????? ) ????? ?????????: ???? ( link )

[3] Fulmer? Jeffrey (2009). "What in the world is infrastructure?". PEI Infrastructure Investor ?. July/August: 30?32.

[4] Infrastructure , American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/entry/infrastructure (accessed January 17, 2009) ???? ?????? 2020-11-02 ?? Wayback Machine

[5] Infrastructure , JP1-02, Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms, p. 260, 12 April 2001 (rev. 31 August 2005) http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA439918&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf(accessed January 17, 2009) ???? ?????? 2020-11-18 ?? Wayback Machine

[6] Online Etymology Dictionary. Douglas Harper, Historian. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/infrastructure (accessed: April 24, 2008) ???? ?????? 2016-03-05 ?? Wayback Machine

[opendb.net-7] "Soft Infrastructure - Definition" . ????? ?? ????? ?? 2011-07-23.

[8] The Etymology of Infrastructure and the Infrastructure of the Internet , Stephen Lewis on his blog Hag Pak Sak , posted September 22, 2008. [1] (accessed: January 17, 2008) ???? ?????? 2018-01-02 ?? Wayback Machine

[9] America in Ruins , Choate and Walter, 1981 ???? ?????? 2017-01-01 ?? Wayback Machine

[10] Dahms, L., National Council on ????? ???? Improvement (U.S.)., National Research Council (U.S.). Committee on Infrastructure Innovation. (1987). Infrastructure for the 21st century: framework for a research agenda. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

[:4-11] Cervero, Robert (2 Dec 2014). "Transport Infrastructure and the Environment in the Global South: Sustainable Mobility and Urbanism" . Journal of Regional and City Planning (???????????). 25 (3): 174?191. DOI : 10.5614/jpwk.2015.25.3.1 . ISSN : 2502-6429 . Archived from the original on 2021-05-11.

[:2-12] Torrisi? Gianpiero (????? 2009). "Public infrastructure: definition, classification and measurement issues" (PDF) . ????? ?? ????? (PDF) ?? 2021-10-22.

[13] "Infrastructure Materials Engineering - Department of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering" . www.caee.utexas.edu . ????? ?? ????? ?? 2021-02-28 . ???? ???? ?????? 2020-11-05 .

[14] Cohen, Gershon (20 Jul 2017). "What is social infrastructure?" . Aberdeen Standard Investments (???????????). Archived from the original on 2021-04-26.

[:3-15] Pease? Bob (28 ?????? 2014). "Infrastructure Investment Opportunities for Public Safety Plans" (PDF) . ????? ?? ????? (PDF) ?? 2021-04-20.

[16] "what does complementary asset mean" . ????? ?? ????? ?? 2018-01-17.

[17] Association of Local Government Engineers New Zealand: "Infrastructure Asset Management Manual", June 1998. Edition 1.1

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??????? ????? ??????	???? ??? ??? ??? ???? ?????? ?????? ???? ?????? ??????? ??????? ?? ????? ???????? ???? (?????) ?????? ???? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ????? ????? ??????? ???? ????? ??????? ????? ?????? ???? ????? ??? ???? ???? ??? ??? ????? ???????? ???????? ????? ?? ??? ???? ????? ???? ????? ?????? ???? ???
??????	????? ?????? ??????? ????? ????? ??????? ???????? ???? ??????? ??????? ??????? ????? ????? ????? ????? ???? ????? ??????? ???????? ??? ??? ????? ???? ?????? ????? ?????? ????? ??????? ????? ?????? ????? ?????? ??? ????? ????? ????? ???? ???? ??? ???? ??? ???? ????? ????? ???????? ????? ????? ?????
????? ??????	?????? ???? ????????? ???? ??????? ????????? ????? ???????? ??????? ????? ?????? ???? ????? ???? ???? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ??????? ??????? ???? ???????? ???????? ??? ?????? ???????? ??? ???????? ?????? ????? ???????? ??????? ????? ???? ???? ???? ????? ????? ????? ???? ??????? ???? ?????? ???? ????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ????? ???????? ????? ???????? ??? ???? Weatherization ????? ??????
?????? ???????	????? ????? ????? ????? ???????? ????? ????????? ???????? ????? ????? ???? ????? ??????
?????	??? ????? ????? ?? ?????? ????? ?????? ???? ???? ????????? ?? ???? ?????? ????????? ??? ??????? ??? ?????? ???? ????? ????? ?? ?????? ????? ???????? ????? ?????? ?? ????? Curtiba rapid bus transit ???? ?????? ??????????? ?????????? ?? ?????? ???? ?????? ?????? ??????? ?? ????? ?????? ??????? ?? ??????? ?? ???? ???? ???? ???? ?????? ???? ???? ??????? ????? ??????? ??? ???????? ????? ???????? ???? ?????? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ?????? ??? ??? ?????????-??????? ?? ??????? ??????? ???????? ????? ???????? ????????? ????? ?????? French TGV rail ????? ??????? ????????? ?????? ??????? ??? ?????? ????? ??????? ??? ????????

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Municipalization ????? ????? ??????
??????	????? ???? ????? ???? ??? ?????? ????? ???? Public land ??????? ?????? ????? ???? Public procurement ???? ????
??????? ????????	???? ????? ??????? ??????? ^{[???? ????]}‏ ????? ??????? ???? Savings system ???? ????? ??????? ????
???? ?????	??????? ?????????? ????? ?????? Telecommunication Municipal broadband Public water system ????? ????????
????? ????	???? ????? Public bank Public hospital ????? ???? ????? ?????? ???? ????? ????? ????
????? ????????	??????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ????? ??? ???? ????? ??????? Social insurance ?????? ???????? ???? ???????
?????:????? ?????? ?????