한국   대만   중국   일본 
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هذه مقالةٌ مختارةٌ، وتعد من أجود محتويات ويكيبيديا. انقر هنا للمزيد من المعلومات.
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عصر كمبريعصر أردوفيسيعصر سيلوريعصر ديفونيعصر كربونيعصر برميعصر ثلاثيالعصر الجوراسيعصر طباشيريباليوجيننيوجين
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عصر كمبريعصر أردوفيسيعصر سيلوريعصر ديفونيعصر كربونيعصر برميعصر ثلاثيالعصر الجوراسيعصر طباشيريباليوجيننيوجين
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???????? 		50 [1] - 85% [2]
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??? ??????? ???????? ??????? ???? ?????? ??? ???? ???? ??? ??? ??? ?????? ????? ?????????.

?????? ????? ????????? ??????????? ( ??????????? : Cretaceous?Paleogene extinction event )? ???? ????? ???? ?????? ????? ????????? ??????? ( ??????????? : Cretaceous-Tertiary Extinction )? [?] ? ??????? ??? ?????? ???? ?????? ??????????? ? ?? ???? ?????? ????? ???? ??? 65 ????? ???? ??? ??????? ????????? ???????????? ????? ????? ??? ??????????? (????? ????? ???? ??????: ???????? ????????? ?????????? )? ?????? ????? ??????? ??? ???? ?? ??????? ??????? ???????????? ??????. ???????? ??? ??? ???????? ??? ???? ?? ??? ????? ?????? ??? ????? [6] (?????? ?????? ??????? ??? ?????? ?????? ?? ??? ????? ?????? ?????? ?? ?? ????? ????????? ????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ????????? ??? 60 ? 80%)? [1] [2] ????? ??? ???? ???? ?????? ??? ??? ??? ????? ??? ???????? ???? ??? ?? ????? ????? ?????? . ??? ???? ??? ???????? ??????? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ?? ??? ??? ????? ???? ?????? ?????? ???? ??? ??? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ???????? ?????????? ???????? ??????. ??? ??????? ??? ????? ?????? ???? ????????? ??? ????? ??????? ?????? ??? ???? ?????????? ????????? .

??? ????? ???????? ?? ??????? ???? ??? ??? ????????? ??? ???? ???????? ?????? ?????? ?? ?? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ?????? ????? ?????? ??? ?? ?????? ??????? ??? ?????? ????? ??? ??? ??? ????? ???? ??????. ???? ???? ?????? ?? ???????? ????????? [7] ??? ?? ??? ??????? ?????? ?? ??????????? ???? ?? ?????? ??????? ??? ?????? ??????? ???? ?? ????? ?? ??????.

??????? ???? ?????? ????? ??? [ ??? ]

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???? ≪ ???? ?-? ≫ ???? ?????????? ?????? ?? ??? ???????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ???? ????? ????? ????? ????????? . ???? ???????? ?????? ???? ???? ?? ??????? ????? ???????? ????????. [8] [9] ???????? ????????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ???? ??? ?? ????? ????? ??? ????????? ????? ?????? ??? ?? ??????????? ?? ??? ?? ????? ???? ??????? ??????? ?? ?????. [10] ??? ???? ?-? ??? ≪ ??????? ?????????? ≫ ( ??? ?? ?????????? ???????) ??? ??????? ????? ???? ???? ???? ???? ????? ??? ?? ???????? ???????? ?? ???? ????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ????????? ??? ?? ??? ?? ≪??????? ?????????≫ ???????? ?? ???????? ??? ????? ????? ???????? ????? ??? ????? ???????? ????? ???? ???? ??? ????? ?? ??????? ????? ????????. [11] ????? ??? ???????? ??????? ??? ??? ?? ??? ???? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ≪??????? ?????????≫ ???? ???? ???? ?-?. [12]

???? ????????????? ??? ?????? ???? ??? ????? ??? ????? ?????????? ? ?????? ????? ??? ????? ??? ?????? ??????? ???????? ?? ???? ?-?. ??? ?? ???? ???? ??? ???? ?????? ????? ???? ?????????? ?? ??? ?? ???? ??????? ????????? ????????? ??? ????? ????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ?? ??? ?????????? ??????. [11] 46% ??????? ?? ???????????? ( ????? ???? ?? ??????? ) ??? ???? ???? ???????? ?? ????? ????????? ??? ??? ?????????? ??????. ???? ???? ???????? ????? ?? ???????? ?????? ?? ??? ?? ???? ?????? ??? ??????????? ??? ???? ?-?. [11] [13]

??? ????? ???? ≪???????????????≫ ( ???? ?? ???????? ?????? ) ??? ???? ?-? ??? ????????? ????? ??????? . [14] [15] ??? ??? ??? ?????? ??? ?? ???? ??? ?????? ??? ???????? ???? ?????? ??? ???? ?-?? ??? ?????? ??? ??? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ??????????????? ??? ??????. [11] ??? ?? ??? ???? ??? ?????? ??? ??????? ?????? ????? ??? ??????? ???? ??? ???? ?????? ??? ???? ????????? ??? ???? ?-?? [16] ???? ??????? ???? ????? ??? ??????? ????? ???? ???? ???????? ?? ???????? ???? ????????? ??? ???? ?-?. [17] [18]

??????????? ??????? [ ??? ]

?????? ??????? .

???? ?????? ?? ??? ???????? ??? ???? ?????? ???????????? ??????? ??? ???? ?-?. ???????? ??????? ???????? ???? ????????? ??? ???? ???????? ???? ?? ???????? ???????. [11]

???? ???????? ( ????? ?? ???????? ) ?????? ???? ≪????? ??????????≫ ?????? (??? ????? ????? ?????????? ??? ??? ??? ???? ??? ????? ?? 70.6 ??? 65.5 ?????? ???)? ??? ???? ?????? ?????? ?? ?????? ?? ???????. ?????? ?????? ??? ???????? ?? ????? ????????????? ??? ???? ??? ?????????? ??? ??? ??? ???? ?? ?? ??? ??? ?? ????? ???????. ??? ??? ??? ????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ???? ??? ??? ?????? ??? ????????? ?? ??? ??? ?? ???? ???? ?-?. [19] [20]

60% ??????? ?? ??????????? (??? ????? ???????) ????? ????????? ??????? ?? ????? ?????? ???? ???? ?-? ??? ????? ???????????. ?????? ?????? ?????? ?????????? ?????????? ?? 98% ??????? ?? ????? ??????? ???? ??? ???? ?? ????? ?????? ???? ????? ?????? ???? ??????. ??? ??????? ??????? (????? ?? ????? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ?? ????? ???? ????? ?????? ??? ??? ??????? ??????? ) ??? ???? ???? ??? ????? ?-?. ???????? ?????? ??????? ????????? (????? ???? ???????? ?? ??????? ??? ??????? ??????) ??? ?????? ??????? ???? ????? ??? ???? ???? ?-? (???? ?????? ?????). [21] [22] ??????? ?? ?? ???? ??????? ??????? ?? ???????? ????????? ?????? ??? ???????? ??? ?? ??????? ?????? ?? ????? ??????????? ??? ?? ????? ??? ???? ???????? ???????? ???? ???? ?? ??????? ????????? ???? ???? ?-?.

??? ?? ????????? ????? ??? ???? ?-? ???? ?????? ??? ?????????? ??? ?????? ?? ?????? ?-?.

?????? ????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ????? ???????? ?????? ???? ??? ??? ???? ?-?. [11] ?? ??? ?? ???? ????? ??????? ?????? (???? ????? ?? ??????????? ???????) ??? ??? ?????? ??????? ???? ?????????? ??????.

???????? ????????? (???? ?????? ???? ??????????? ???????) ????????? (????? ?????? ?????? ??? ???????? ??????? ) ??? ???? ???????? ?? ????? ??????????? ?????? ???? ???? ?-?. ?????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ????? ??? ??????????? (?????? ?? ??????????? ??????? ????? ??????? ?????? ????????). ??? ??? ???????? ???? ???????? ?? ????????? ??????? ??????? ??? ????????? (????? ????? ??? ??? ???? ??? ??? ????) ???? ????? ?? ?????? ????? ????????. ?? ??? ?? ??????????? ???? ????? ??? ?????????? ??????? (?????? ?? ?????? ????????)? ??? ??? ???????????? ?? ????? ?????? ????? ???? ???? ?-?. [23] [24]

???? ??????? ?????? ??????? ?? ????? ?????? ????? ?????? ???? ???? ?-?? ?????? ?? ?? ????????? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ???????? ?????? ????? ????? ???? ????? ????????? ??????? ???? ???? ????? ??????. ?? ??? ?? ?????? ????? ???? ???? ??? ????? ??? ?????? ??? ????? ?????? ????? ??? ????? ???????. ????? ????? ???????? ??? ????? ??????? ????????? ?????? ??? ????? ????????? ????? ????? ????? ?????. [25]

????? ??????? ???? ?? ??????????? ?????? ????? ???? ???? ?-?? ?????? ≪ ?????????? ≫ (????? ????) ?≪???????????????≫ (????? ?????? ????? ???????? ??????). [26] [27]

??????? [ ??? ]

???? ?????: ???

???? ??? ?????? ??? ??????? ??????? ??? ???? ?-?? ????? ???? ??????? ????? ??? ???? ?????? ??? ??????? ?? ????????? ???????. ???? ??????? ????????? (???? ??? ??????? ??????)? 80% ??????? ?? ????? ?????? ????????? ?????? ????? ??? ??? ????????? [11] ????? ?? 90% ?? ????? ???????? ??? ?????. [28] ?????? ?? ?? ???? ?????? ??? ??? ????? ?????? ????? ?? ??? ????? ???????? ???? ??? ?? ??????? ????????? ??? ???? ?-? ??????? ????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ???? ?-?. [29] ??????? ????? ??? ????? ????? ????? ??????? ?? ????? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ????????. [30] ??? ????? ????? ????? ??? ?? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ???? ?? ??????? ??? ??????? ???? ???? ??? ?? ????? ??????? ??????? ????? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ????? ???? ???? ???? ???? ?????? ??????? ??? ?? ????? ???? ????? ?? ????? ?????? ???????. [31]

??????????? ??????? [ ??? ]

???? ?????: ?????????

????? ??????? ?? ????? ???????? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ?????? ??? ?????? ???????? ? ??? ??????? ??? ????????? ????? ??? ????? ??????? ???? ???? ?-? ??????? ?????? ????? ????????. ???? ???????? ?? ????? ????? ????????? ???? ???? ??? ?? ??? ???????? ????? ??? ????? ??????? ????? ???????. ??????? ?? ???? ???? ?????????? ?????? ???? ?????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ?? ????? ???? ?? ???????? ???? ??? ??? ???????? ??? ?????? 1.7 ????? ???. [32] [33] ?????? ??? ???????? ??????? ?? ??????? (????? ????? ??? ????????? ???? ???????) ??????? ????? ???????? ??? ?????? ?? ???????? ?? ??? ?????? ???? ??????? ??? ???????? ??? ???? ?-?. ??????? ?? ??? ??? ??? ???? ??? ???? ??? ??? ????? ?????? ?-? ??? ???????. [34]

???????? ??????? [ ??? ]

?????? ??????? ????? ?????? ???? ???? ?-?.

???? ???? ????? ??? ??? ?????? ??? ???? ?-?. [35] ??????? ?? ???? ???? ???? ???????? ???????? ???? ??? ??????? ??????. ?? ?????? ???????? ? ???? ????????? ??? ???? ??????? ???????? ???????? ?? ????? ???? ?-?? ??? ????? ?? ??? ???? ???? ??????? ???? ?? ???? ??????? ??? ???????? ??? ??????. [36] ??? ?????? ??????? 57% ??????? ?? ????? ???????? ?? ?????? ???????? ??? ??????. [37]

??? ?? ????? ????? ????? ??????? (?? ??? ?????? ???????? ??? ?? ?????? ?? ?? ????????? ???? ?????) ?? ??? ????? ??????? ??? ????????? ??????????? ? ??? ????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ?? ????? ???????? ????? ?? ???????? ??? ???? ??????? ?????? ?????? ????? ?? ???? ???? ??????? ??????? ??????. [32] [38] ???? ????? ???????? ?? ?????????? ?? ?????? ??? ?????? ?????? ? ???? ?? ??? ??? ?????? ???? ???? ??????? ??? ?????? ????? ??? ????? .

???? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ??? ???? ?-? ??? ????? ????????? ??? ????? ?????? ??? ????? ?? ??? ????? ?????? ???? ???? ? ???????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ?? ???????? ??????. ?????? ????? ??????? ??????? ??? ?????? ???????? ??? ??? ????? ??? ?? ?????? ??? ?????? ??? ?????? ?? ?????? ????? ?????? ???? ???? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????. ????? ?????? ??? ??????? ????????? ???? ????? ??? ?????? ?????? ??? ?????? ????????? ?????? ????. [39]

?????????? [ ??? ]

???? ?????: ????????

?? ???? ???? ??? ?????? ???????? ????? ??? ???? ?-?? ????? ???? ???? ??? ?? ???? ?????????? ??? ?? ???????? ??? ???? ??????. [11] ?????? ?????? ?? ???????? ??????? ??????? ????? ?? ??????? ???? ????? ?? ??????? ?? ??? ?? ??????? ?????? ?? ????? ?????????. [40]

???? ?? ??????? ??? ??? ??? ?????????? ?? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ?? ??? ???????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??? ?????. [11] ????? ??? ???? ?????? ????? ?? ??????? ?? ??????? ???? ?? ????? ??????? ?-? ???? ???? ?? ????? ??????? (??? ?? ????). [40] ?????????? ?? ???? ??? ?????? ?????? (?? ???? ?? ???? ?? ???? ???????) ??? ?????? ????? ?????????? ???? ????? ???? ?-?. ????? ??? ????? ???? ???? ?????????? ?? ?????? ??? ???????? ?? ????? ?? ???? ????? ??? ?? ??????? ?? ?? ?????? ?? ?? ????? ?? ??? ??????. [30]

??????? ?? ????? ????????? [ ??? ]

??????? ?? ????? ????????? ???????? ???? ????? ??? ???? ?-? ??? ???? ??????? ??????? ??????.

?? ????? ????????? ???? ???? ??????? ?? ??????? ?? ??? ??????????? ? ??? ≪ ?????????? ≫ ( ??????? ????????) ?≪???????????≫ ( ??????? ???????? ?????????? ). [11] ??? ???? ?? 80% ?? ????? ??????? ???? ???? ?? ????? ?????????? [41] ??? ???? ????? ?????? ?? ????????? ?? ?????? ???? ???? ???????? ???? ?????? ?? ???? ??? ??? ?? ??? ?????? ?? ????? ?? ???????. ???????? ??????? ??????? ??? ???????? ??? ????? ?????? ???? ??? ???? ??????? ??????? ???? ????? ????????? ??????? ??????????? ??????. [11] [41]

???? ??????? ??????? ?? ??? ???????????? ??? ????????? ??????????? ? ?? ???? ????? ????????? ??????? ??? ???????. ??? ?????? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ?????????. [42] [43] ?????? ?? ?? ??? ??????? ??????? ?? ????? ?? ??? ??? ??? ??? ????? ????? ?? ????? ????? ??? ??????. ??? ??? ????? ???? ???? ????? ???????? ????? ??? ?????? ?? ????? ?????? ?????? ??? ??? ?? ???? ??????? . ??? ?? ?????? ?? ??? ????? ???? ??????? ???? ???? ?? ???? ????? ????? ???? ???? ???? ????? ???? ???????? ??? ??? ??? ??????????? ?? ???. [44]

??????? ?? ??????????? [ ??? ]

???? ?????: ???????

????? ?????? ??????????? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ??? ?????? ??? ?????????? (????? ?? ??? ???? ??? ???? ????? ?? ?????????? ????????? ?????? ???????? ) ???????????? (??? ????? ????? ?? ?????? ?? ????????? ?????)? ????? ?????? ??????????? ???-??????? ???????????? .

????? ?????????? [ ??? ]

????? ??? ????? ?? ????? ?????????? (?? ??? ??????? ????? ????? ???) ?? ??? ?????? ????? ???????????? ??? ???? ?????? ??? ???? ?-?. [45] ??? ????? ?????? ????? ??? ??? ???????? ???????????? ?????????????. ????? ??????? ???? ??? ?? ?????? ?-? ???? ???? ????? ????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ????????????? ????? ???? ???? ?? ??? ????? ????? ???????. 50% ??????? ?? ????? ????? ?????????? ??? ??? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??? ????? ???????? ??????? ?? ??? ?? ???? ?? ????? ??? (??? ????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ≪ ???????? ≫) ??? ??????. [11] ???? ???????? ??? ?????? ???? ???? ?? ????? ?? ?????? ??????? ??? ????????? ???? ???? ?? ????????? ??? ????????? ??????? ??????? ????? ???? ??????. [30] ??? ??? ????? ?? ??? 2008 ??? ???????????? ???? ?? ????? ?????? ?????? ??? ???????? ??????? ???????? ???? ??? ????????? ??? ?????? ?? ????? ???? ?????? ??? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?? ????? ???? ????? ?-? ??? ??? ??????? ???????. [46]

??????????? [ ??? ]

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?????????????? ? ??? ???? ??????? ??????? ???? ???? ??? ??? ????? ??? ???????. ?????? ???? ??????????? ??? ???? ?-?? ??? ???? ??????? ??? ??? ??????.

???? ????? ????? ??? ?? ??????????? (??? ≪??????????????≫) ?? ?????? ?????? ??? ???? ?? ≪?????? ???????????????≫? ??? ?????? ??? ??????? ??? ???? ?-?. ???? ??? ??????????? ??????? ???? ?????? ????? 10 ????? ???? ????? ????? ?????????? ??? ????? ??? ??????? ???? ??????? ?????. ??? ??????????? ?????? ??? ?????? ??? ≪?????? ???????????????≫? ???? ?? ???? ???? ???????? ?? ????? ????????? ?????? (?? ??????????? ???????) ?? ??? ?? ?????? ????? ???? ????????. ??? ??????? ???? ??? ???? ???? ???? ???? ?????? ??????? ?????? ???? ???? ?????? ??????? ????????????? ????? ??? ??? ???? ??????? ??????? ??? ??????? ???????? ?? ?? ?????? ??????? ???? - ?????? - ?????? ??????. [30] [47] [48]

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???? ?????: ???????
????? ??????????? ?????? ?????? ?? ???????????????? ? ???? ?? ????? ??????????? ???? ???? ?? ????? ?????????.

???? ?? ?????? ??????????? ??? ???? ?-? ???? ??? ??? ?? ?????? ?? ?????? ???? ?? ???????. ???????? ????? ?????? ?????? ????? ??????? ??? ?? ?? ??????????? (???????? ?????? ???? ????? ????? ?? ????? ?? ?????????) ?????? ??? ???? ?-?. ?????? ?? ?? ??? ?????? ??????????? ???? ??? ??? ??? ??? ?????? ???? ?????? ?????? ?? ???? ???? ???? ?????? ?????? ??? ??????? ?? ????? ?????????? ??? ??? ???? ???? ?????? ??? ?? ???? ??? ?????? ??????????? ???? ????? ????? ????? ???????? ?????? ???. [49] ??? ??? ?? ???? ?? ???? ??? ?? ????????? ??????????? ??????? ???????? ?? ??????? ?? ?????? ??? ???? ??? ????? ??? ????? ????? ?? ???? ???? ??????? ??????? ?? ????? ?????. ?? ??????? ?? ??? ??????????? ??????? (??? ??????) ???? ???? ???????? ?????? ??? ??? ??????????? ??????? ???? ???? ??? ??????. [30] ???? ????? ??? ??? ????? ??? ?????? ??????????? ???? ???? ????????? ?? ??????? ????? ????? ???? ??? ??? ?????????? . ????????? ?? ?? ???? ???? ?????? ????? ???? ?????? ?????? (??????? ?????? ??? ??? ?????? ????? ????? ???? ????)? ?? ??? ?? ????????? ?? ???? ???? ????? ?? ????? ?????? ????? ??? ???? ????? ?? ???. ????? ???? ???? ?????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ???? ???? ??????? ?????? ???????????? [50] ?? ??? ?? ??? ???????? ???. ???????? ????? ????????? ?? ???? ???? ?????? (??? ??? ?????? ?????????) ??? ??????? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ??? ?????? ?????? ??? ?? ?????? ??????? ?????? ??? ????????. [51]

??? ?????? ???? ????????? ?? ≪ ??? ??? ???? ≫ ?? ???????? ??????? ???? ???? ??????? ??? ?? ??? ?????? ???????????. ???? ??? ??? ???? ??? ??????????? ?? ??? ??????? ???????? ??? ??????? ???? ?? ?????? ????? ??? ?????? ????????? . ????? ??????? ??????????? ????? ?? ??? ??? ??????? ??? ??? ??? ??? ????? ??? ??? ???????? (???? ???? ????? ?? ???? ?? ??? ?? ???????? ?? ?????? ????? ??? ????? ?? ??? ????? ????). ???? ?? ???? ????? ???? ????? ??? ?????? ???? ?? ?????? ??? ?? ??? ????????. ??? ??? ?? ?????? ??? ????? ?????? ?? ??????? ?????? ??? ?????? ???? ???? ????. ??? ??? ??? ??????????? ???? ?????? ??????? ?? ??????? ??? ?? ??? ?????? ?????? ????? ???? ????? ??? ????? ???? ????. ??? ?????? ?? ???? ?? ??? ??? ?? ?????? ?????? ???? ???? ??? ?? ??? ??????????? ?? ??? ????? ?? ????????. [52] ??? ?????? ?????? ???? ????? ??????? ???? ???? ?????? ??? ????????? ??? ???? ????????? ???? ??? 64.5 ????? ???? ?? ???? ?????? ???. [53]

???????? [ ??? ]

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??? ?? ????????? ?????????? ??????? ??? ???? ?-?? ?????? ?? ???? ???? ?? ??? ???????? ?? ???????? ?????? ??????? ?????? (???????? ????????) ??????????? ????????? ????????? ???????? . [54] [55] ???? ????? ????? ???? ???????? ??? ?? ???? ?? ?????? ????????? ??????? ????? ≪??????????????≫ (??? ????? ????????). [54] ?? ≪???? ???≫ ?? ?????? ????????? ??? ????? ??? ????? ????????? ?????? ??? ????? ???????? ?????? ??? ?? ????? ????? ??? ???? ???? ?-?. [49]

???? ???????? ???????? ??? 30 ????? ??? ??????? ?? ???? ?-?? ??? ??????? ????? ??? ??????. [56] ????? ?????? ??????? ??? ?? ???????? ?? ?????? ???? ???? ??? ??????? ??? ????? ?? ?????? ???????? ???? ?????? ??? ??????? ???????????. ??? ?? ??? ????? ???? ?????? ?? ??? ????????? ???????? ?????? ??? ??????? ?????? ???????? ?≪ ????????????????? ≫ (?????? ??????? ????? ????? ???????? ???????? ??????? ??????? )? [57] ?????? ?? ?? ????? ?????? ????? ??? ?? ??? ???????? ?? ??????? ???? ?????? ??? ??????. [56]

???? ????? ???????? ??? ???? ?-? ????? ???? ???? ?????? ??? ??????? ???? ??????? ? ??? ?????? ??? ????? ?????? ?????? ??? ????? ????? ?? ??????/??? ???? ?-?. ????? ??? ???? ?????? ????? ?? ??? ??????? ?????? ????????? ?????????? ??????? ???? ???-????? (???? ????? ?? ?????? ?? ?????) ?? ??? ????? ??? ??? ???? ?????? ?? ???????? ???????? ???? ?????. ??? ??? ??? ???? ?? ?? ???? ??? ???? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ???? ?-? ??????? ?????????. [30]

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???? ?????? ?? ???????? ????????? ????????? ??? ?????? ?? ??? ??????? ?????? ?? ?????? ???????? ?????? ????? ???????? ????????. ??? ??? ????? ????? ???????? ?? ???? ??? ?????? ?????? ????? ??????? ???? ?? ???????? ????????:

???????? ?????? [ ??? ]

???? ??????? ???? ???????? ??????? ??? ?? ??????? ?????? ??????? ???? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ??????? ????? ???? ??? ???? ????? ???? ???????? ??????.

???? ???? ???????? ?? ??? ???????? ?? ???????? ?????? . ??? ??? ?? ????? ??????? ????? ??????? ??? ?????? ??????? ?? ??????? ?????????? ??? ???? ??????? ???? ????? ?????? ????????? ?? ?? ???????? ???????? ??? ???????. ?????? ???? ??????? ???? ????? ????? ??????? ????? ????????? ??? ??????? ????????? ? ????????? ??? ??? ??? ???? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ?????? [58] (??? ??? ??? ). [59] ??? ????? ?????? ??????? ?? ??????? ??? ??? ?? ??????? ?? ??????? ???? ???? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ???? ????? ????????? ???????. ?????? ???? ??? ??????? ???????? ??????? ?? ?????? ??????? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ??????? ???????? ????????? ??????? ?? ??? ?????? ???????????? ??? ????? ???? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?? ???????? ??? ??????? ?????? ?????. ????? ??? ?? ???????? ??????? ??????????? ????? ???? ????? ??? ??? ?? ??????????? ??????? ????? ???? ?? ???????? ????? ??? ??? ???? ??? ?????? ??? ??????? ???? ?? ??????? ???????? ??? ??? ?? ????? ???????. ???????? ???? ??????? ???? ?????? ?????? ??? ????? ???? ??????? ?????? ??? ?????? ??????????? ???? ????? ??? ??????? ???????.

???????? ?????????? [ ??? ]

?????? ????? [ ??? ]

???? ???? ???????? ??? ?? ????? ???? ??? ?? ????? ????? ?????????. ??? ??? ??????????? ??????? ???? ?????? ????? ??? ???? ????? ???????? ??? ?????? ??????????? ??????? ????? ?? ??? ?? ????? ????. ??? ??? ??????? ?????? ??? ?????? ????? ??? ????? ????? ?????? ??? ?? ??????????? (??? ??? ?? ???? ?????? ???? ?? ????? ?????? ???).

?????? [ ??? ]

???? ???? ???????? ?? ?????? ????? ???? ?? ???? ?????? ??????????? ???? ??? ?????.

???? ????? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ?????????. ????? ????? ??????? ??? ??? ????? ??? ????? ??????????? ??????? ????? ??? ????????. ??? ?? ???? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??? ?? ??????????? (???????? ???? ???? ?????) ??????? ?????????? ?????? ????????? ????? ???????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ?? ????????. [60]

????? ????? [ ??? ]

???? ????? ?? ?????? ????? ????? ??????? ?? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ????????? ?? ??????. ??? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ????????? ????? ??? ????????? ?????? ??? ??????? ????????? ???????? ???????? ??????? ??? ??? ??????????? ????? ???? ???? ?????? ??? ??? ?? ??????? ??? ????????. ??? ??? ??????? ???? ?????? ?????? ??? ????? ???? ?? ????????? ?????? ??? ??? ????? ?? ????????? ???? ????? ????? ???? ????? ??? ????? ??????. ?? ?? ????????? ???? ???? ????? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ??????? ????? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ??????? ??? ???????? ?? ????? ??????. [60]

??????? ?????? [ ??? ]

???? ?????: ????? ????
??? ????? ??????? ????? ???? ???? ???? ??????? .

????????? ??????? (?? ??????????) ?? ???????? ????? ????? ????? ??? ??? ?????? ?????? (?? ???? ?????? ???? ??? ?? ?????????? ??? ????????? ???????). ????? ??? ??? ?????????? ??? ?????? ??? ????? ?? ???? ???? ????? ????? ?? ???? ???? ??????? ?? ????? ?????? ???? ??????? ? ????? ???? ????????? ????? ??? ????? ?????? ???? ?????? ??? ????????? ???? ??????? ????? ?? ?????? ??? ?????. ?????? ???? ???? ????? ?? ??? ????. [61] ?????? ??? ?????????? ????? ????? ?? ????????? [62] ????? ??? ???? ?? ????? ???? ??? ??????? ????????? ????????. [63] ??? ???? ??? ?????? ?? ?? ??????? ?????? ?? ??? ????????? ???? ?? ?????? ???? ?? ???. ???? ??? ??? ????? ????? ????? ?? ????????? ????? ???? ????? ???? ?? ???? ??????? ???? ????? ??? ??? ??? ????? ????? ??? ?? ????? (???? ???? ??? ???????? ???????? ????? ???? ??? ??? ????? ???? ???? 4 ????? ?????). ??????? ???? ?????? ????? ???? ??? ??? ????? ?? ????? ???? ??? ??? 100 ????? ??? ?? 1 ?? ????? ???? ???? ???? ????? ???????? ????. ??????? ??? ???? ?????????? ??????? ?? ????? ???? ????????? ??? ?? ????? ??????????? ????? ?? ?????? ?? ???? ??. ????????? ??? ??? ?????? ?? ??? ???????? ?? ??? ??????? ??????. [62]

???????? ???????? [ ??? ]

??? ????? ???? ??????????? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ????? ????????? ????? .

????? ??? ??????? ???? ??? ?? ??? ?????????? ?? ????? ??????? . ???? ??????? ??? ????? ????? ??????? ??? ???????? ?? ??? ????? ??? ???? ????????? ??????? ??? ??????? ??? ????? ???????? ???. ??? ????? ???? ????? ???? ???????? ??? ???????? ??????? ????????? ?? ????? ???? ??? ?? ??? ????? ??? ????? ?? ??? ??????. [64]

????? ??? ??? ??????? ??? ≪ ????? ????? ≫ ( ??????????? : Deccan Traps )?? ??? ???? ????? ?? ??????? ????????? ??????? ????? ??? 1.5 ????? ??? ???????. ??? ????? ??? ??????? 1.1 ????? ?? 3 ?? ????? ??? ?? ??? ??????? ?? ?????????? ?????????? ???? ?????? ???? ???? ??? ??? ????? ?????? . ??????? ???? ????? ?????? ??????? (???? ??? ?????? ???????? ???? ???? ????? ) ??????? ????? . [7] ???? ????? ???????? ??? ????? ??? ??????? ???????? ?????? ???? ??????? ???????? ??????? ?? ???? ??????? ??? ????? ???????? ????? ????. ????? ??? ?????? ???? ??????? ?????? ???? ??? ?????? ?????? ?? ????? ?????? ??? ???? ???????. [64]

??????? [ ??? ]

?????? [ ??? ]

??? ????? ?? ???? ??????? ???? ??? ??????? ???????? ???????? (???????? ≪???? ?-?≫ ?? ≪???? ??-??≫) ???? ??? ???? ?????? ??? ?? ????? ????? ????????? ?? ??? ??? ???? ????????. ???? ?????? (???? ?????? ???? ???????) ????? ???? ??? ????? ????? ?? ????????? (???? ??????? ???? ?? ??????? )? ???? ???? ?? ???? ????? ????????? ?? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ??? ??? ???????? ???????? . ??? ???? ??? ?????? ?? ??????? ??????? ????????? ??? ?????? ?? ??????? ???????? ??????? ????????? . ??? ??? ??? ?? ?????? ?? ????? ?? ??? ?? ???? ?????? [63] ???? ????? ???? ?? ????????? ?? ???? ????? ???? ??????? ???? ????? ????????.

?? ????? ??? 2009 ? ???? ???? ?? 41 ?????? ?????? ??????? ????? ???? ?????? ?????? ??? ?????? ??? ?????? ????? ?????????. ??? ????? ??? ???????? ?? ??? ???????? ??? ?????? ????? ??? ?????? ?? ???? ???????? ????????? ??? ????? ??? ???? ?????? ????? ??? ??? ????? ???????? . ???? ?? ?????? ???? ??? ?????? ???? ????? ?? ???????? ??? ??? ?????? ????? ???? ????? ??????? ?????? ???? ??? ????????. ???? ?? ??? ??? ??? ????? ?????? ??? ????? ??????? ????????. [7]

????????????? [ ??? ]

??????? ?????? ?? ?? ?????? ??????? ??? ???? ?-? ??? ????? ??????? ??? ????? ????? ???????? ????? ???????. [65] ??? ?? ????? ??? ??????? ?? ??? ?? ???? ?? ???? ??? ???????. [66] ???????? ?????? ?? ???? ??? ????????. [67] ?????? ??? ?????? ???????. [68] ?? ????? ?????? ????????????? ???? ??? ??? 100 ??? (330 ???)? ??? ??? ??????? ?? ????? ???? ??????? ??? ?? ??? ?? ??? ?? ??? ????? ???? ?? ?????? ?? ??? ???????? ??? 4.6 ??????? (2.9 ???). [69]

???? ??????? ???????? [ ??? ]

????? ??? ??????? ??? ????? ?????? ???? ???? ??? ???? ????? ?????? ???????? ??? ?????? ??? ??????? ?????? ?? ???? ????????? (???? ??? ??? ????? ?????? ???????? ). ????? ??? ?????? ???? ?????? ??? ???????? ???? ?? ???? ??????? ?? ?????. ??? ?? ??? ?????? ????? ?? ???? ?? ????? ?????? ?????? ???? ??????? ?????. [70] ??? ???? ???? ?????? ??? ??? ???????? ?? ???? ??? ????? 15 ??? ???? ?????? ???? ??? ????? ?????? ???? ????? ????? ??? ??? ????? ???????? . [7]

???? ??? ?? ??? ??? ????????? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ???? ?? ???? ???????/?????? ??? ?????? ????? ????? ?????? [71] ???? ???????? ????? ??? ???????? ????? ????? ?????. ?????? ??? ???????? ????? ???? ??? ????? ???? ?? ?????? ??? ??? ??? ????? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ???? ?????. ????? ??? ???? ????? ?????? ??? ??????? ?? ???? ??? ????????? ??? ??? ??????? ?????? ???? ??????? ??? ?? ??? ???? ???????? ???? ??? ???????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ??????? (????? ?????? ???????? ????????) ???? ???? ????? ?????? ?????? . ?????? ???? ????????? ??? ??? ?? ????? ???? ????? ??????? ??? ?????? ? ??? ????? ??????? ????????? ?????? ???? ?????? ??? ????? ??????? ????? ???? ????????. ??? ?????? ?? ??? ?? ??? ?? ????? ??????? ?? ?? ??? ????? ?????? ????? ??? ????? ?? ??????. ???? ??? ?????? ??????? ????? ??? ???? ????????? ???? ????? ???????? ??????? ? ??? ?? ??????? ??????? ???? ??????? ????? ???? ?????? ?? ???? ???? ???? ?????? ??????? ?? ?????? ?????.

???? ???????? [ ??? ]

???? ???? ???????? ?? ??? ????? ??????? ?????????? ????? ????? ???? ??????? ???? ???? ???????? ???? ??? ?????? ????? ????? ?????????.

??? ?????? ???? ???????? ??????? ?? ????? ??????? ????????? ??? 1978 ??????? ???? ??? ???? ?? ????? ???? ???????? ??????? ???? ??? ?? ????? ????? ?????????. ????? ??? ??? ?????? ???????? 180 ?????????? ?????? ??????? 1.8 ?? ??? ????? ???????? ?????? ???. [72] [73] ?????? ???? ??? ?????? ??? 65 ????? ???? ??? ??? ????????? ?????? ??? ??????? ????????? ???? ??? ????? ?????? ?? ??????????? ?????? ?? ???? ??????? ?????? ???? ??????? ???????? ????? ???? ?? ???? ???????? ???? ??? ??? ???????? ???????.

??? ?????? ?? ??? ??? ????? ??? 2009 ???? ??? ?? ≪ ???? ??????? ?????????? ≫ ( ??????????? : Journal of the Geological Society )? ??? ?? ???? ???????? ???? ???? ???????? ????????. ??? ???? ???? ????? ??? ?? ????? ???? ???????? ??????? ?? ????? ????? ????????? ????? ??? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ??????? ???? ???? ???? ??????? ??? ?? ????? ????? ???????? ?????? ??? ??? ?????? ??? ???? ????? ?? ??????? ????? ???? ????????? ??? ???????? ?? ?????? ??? ??? ??????? ????? ???? ?????? ??? ????? ???????? ?? ????? ???? ????? ?? ????? ?? ??? ??? ???? ????? ?? ?????. ?????? ??? ??? ??? ???? ????? ????????? ???? ???? ????? ?? ??????? ??????? ???? ??? ???? ???????? ???? ????? ????? ?? ??????? ???? ???? ??? ?? ??? ???? ??????? ???? ????? ???? ?? ??? ????? ????????. [74]

?????? ??????? [ ??? ]

?????? ?? ?? ????? ??????? ?? ???? ???????? ?????? ??? ???? ??? ???? ?? ??? ???? ??? ????????. ??? ??? ?? ????? ????????? ??? ?? ???? ???????? ????? ???? ????? ?????? ? ??????? ?? ??? ??? ????? ???????? ????? ????? ??? ?? ????? ????? ?????????. ?????? ???????? ?????? ?? ???? ???????? ?????? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ????????. ????? ????????? ????? ????????? ??? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ??? ?????? ???? ??? ??? ???? ????????? ??????? ????? ??? ???? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ???? ??? ??? ???????. ???????? ?? ?????????? ??? ?? ?? ?????? ?????? ????? ?????? ????? ?? ??????? ????? ????? (??? ??? ??? ?? ????? ????? ?????????). ??????? ????? ?? ???????? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ??? ???????? ???? ???? ???? ???????? ?? ?????. [75]

?? ??? ???????? [ ??? ]

???? ??? ???????? ????? ??? ??????????? ?????? ??? ???????? . ???? ?????? ????? ????? ????????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ?????? ?? ??? ???????? [76] (??? ?? ??? ??? ?????? ?? ????? ????????? ?? ?????? ?????)? [77] [78] ??? ?? ??? ?????????? (????? ??? ???????? ??????) ?? ???? ???????? ??????? ??? ??? ?????? ???? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ?? ???. ??????? ?? ?? ???????? ???? ?? ???? ?? ????? ?? ??????????? ??? ???? ??? ????? ???? ?????? ??? ???????? ???? ?? ?????? ????? ???? ???? ??????? ??????? ????? ?? ???? ?????? ??? ??? ?????? ???????????.

??? ????? ????? ?? ??? ??????????? ?????? ????? ????? ??? ???? ????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ????? ????. ??? ?? ?????? ??? ?????? ?????? ????? ???????? ?????? ????? ???? ?????? ???? ???? ???? ?????? ????? ??? ????? ????? ?? ???????? ?????? ????? . [79]

???? ????? [ ??? ]

??????? [ ??? ]

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